6  I 


THE 

ITALIAN  IN  AMERICA 


BY 


ELIOT  LORD,  A.M. 

Special  Agent  U.  S.  Tentii  Census  :  Social  Statistics 

JOHN  J.  D.  TRENOR 

Chairman  of  Immigration  Committee,  National  Board  of  Trade, 
Annual  Session,  1904 

SAMUEL  J.  BARROWS 

Secretary  of  the  Prison  Association  of  New  York 


NEW  YORK 
B.  F.  BUCK  &  COMPANY 

160  FIFTH  AVENUE 

1905 


COPYRIGHT,  1905,  BY 
BENJ.  F.  BUCK 

All  rights  reserved 


Press  of  J.  J.  Little  &  Co. 
Astor  Place,  New  York 


PEEFACE. 


The  design  of  "  The  Italian  in  America  "  is  to 
present  clearly  the  contribution  of  Italy  to 
American  development  and  citizenship.  The 
work  is  one  of  a  series  reviewing  the  influx  of 
the  various  racial  strains  and  nationalities  that 
are  making  up  the  composite  American.  The 
authors  have  in  view  simply  the  recital  of  facts 
for  impartial  consideration,  for  no  concern  of 
this  country  is  more  momentous  and  urgent  than 
the  national  dealing  with  the  problems  of  immi 
gration,  congestion,  distribution  and  education 
for  American  standards  of  living  and  citizenship. 
To  exclude  what  is  essentially  bad  or  unfusible 
from  any  source — to  welcome  and  utilize  what 
is  essentially  good  and  helpful,  even  if  yet  im 
perfectly  developed,  is  in  the  judgment  of  the 
authors  the  true  American  policy. 


CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   I 

-^  The  Flow  of  Emigration  «* 

PAGE 

Of  Present  National  Concern — Notable  Increase — Record  of  Influx 
and  Efflux — Population  Born  in  Italy — Di s t r ibu t io n_  o f  Influx 
— Proportion  of  Males  to  Females — Age  of  Emigrants — Com- 
puted  Productive  Value — Certificate  of  Inspector  of  Royal 
Emigration  Department — Alleged  Undesirability  of  Southern 
Latin  Jnfusion — Grouiids_of^  Prejudice— Aim  of  Present  In 
quiry  1 

CHAPTER    II 
The  Inheritance  and  Progress  of  United  Italy 

Origin  and  Descent  of  Italian  People — Influence  of  Old  Roman 
Republic  and  Empire — Maintenance  of  Civilization — The  Re 
naissance  in  Italy — "  The  Liberator  and  Teacher  of  Modern 
Europe" — Italian  Impress  on  "Anglo-Saxon"  England — Dis 
tinctive  Indebtedness  of  America — The  Uprising  of  United 
Italy — Progress  of  Unification — Advancement  of  Northern 
and  Central  Italy — Drawbacks  in  Southern  Italy— General 
Industrial  Development — Educational  Undertakings — Indis 
putable  Progress  of  United  Italy 20 

CHAPTER   III 
The  Causes  and  Regulation  of  Italian  Emigration'' 

A  Home-loving  People — -JVlain  Cause  of  Emigration  Originally — 
Lack  of  Diversification  and  Development  of  Industries — Latid 


Contents 


PAGE 

Monopoly  -  Burdens  of  Taxation—  Financial  Condition  of 
Italy  —  Pregfflfr  "^]rfjgfia_n|  T£mlg|'flLfljnn^  —  Depression  of  Im- 
TllfHnt.™Pfl-r  ^™™™™«"*  Regulations 


Safeguarding  Emigration  and  Colonization  —  Institution  of 
Royal  Emigration  Department  —  Purpose  and  Operation  of 
Amended  Italian  Emigration  Legislation  —  Official  Restriction 
of  Increase  of  Emigration  ........  39 


CHAPTER   IV 

T£  Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities.' 

First   Employment   at    Hand — Classification  of   Occupations   of 
Immigrants — Prnpnrtjpni  of  Skilled  and  ^Tnlr11^  T..^™. — 
Drift   of    Italian   Influx — Early    Settlements — Objectionable 
y  V    Congestion — Improvement  in  Conditions  of  Living — Increase 
(y        in  Property  Values — Extension  of  Italian  Ownership  and  In 
vestments — Computation   of   Savings    and   Property   Valua 
tion  in  New  York  and  Other  Cities — Social  and  Industrial 
Progress — Advances  in  New  England  and  the  Middle  States 
— Comparative  Exhibits  in  the  South  and  West 


CHAPTER   V 

*-In  Competition  and  Association  / 

Demonstrated  Capacity  of  the  Italian  Immigrant  under  Severely 
Trying  Conditions — Improvement  of  Condition  of  Unskilled 

\^i  Laborers — Workers  in  the  Clothing  Trades — Masons  and 
Stone-cutters — Barbers  and  Hairdressers — Carpenters  and 
Joiners — Sculptors,  Painters,  Musicians — Professional  and 
Business  Men 


vi 


Contents 

CHAPTER   VI 

i     In  the  Mining  Fields 

PAGE 

Influx  from  Italy  to  Our  Mining  Fields — Effect  of  Introduction 
of  Machines  on  Coal  Mining — Competition  of  Lithuanians, 
Slovaks  and  Poles — Only  a  Small  Fraction  Italian — Main 
Objections  to  Employment  of  Italians  in  Coal  Mines — Labor 
and  Social  Conditions  in  Mining  Fields  West  of  the  Missis- 
sippi-r-Italian  Miners  in  Indian  Territory,  Texas  and  Colo 
rado  ,  99 


»     On  Farm  and  Plantation 

Apparent  Neglect  of  Openings  for  Work  and  Settlement  in  Agri 
cultural  Diflfrjpf.a — Canape  of  Adhesion  to  Cities  and  Towns 
— Opportunities  in  American  Market  Gardening — Successful 
Market  Gardening  by  Italians  Throughout  the  United  States 
— Cultivation  of  Small  Fruits — Illustrative  Strawberry  Cul 
ture  at  Independence,  Louisiana — Extension  of  Grape  and^ 
Olive  Growing — Noteworthy  Italian  Vineyards  and  Wineries 
— 'Particular  Adaptability  for  Cotton,  Rice  and  Sugarcane 
Culture — illustrative  Examples  —  Comparison  with  Negro 
Labor— The  Demands  of  the  South  .  .  114 


CHAPTER   VIII 

5|f  Rising  Demand  for  Italian  Immigrant  Labor-' 

- 

Comparative  Density  of  Population  of  the  United  States — Qpen- 

_ings    for    Profitable    Employment — Urgent    Call    from    the 

South  for  Immigration — Effect  of  Entry  of  Unskilled  Labor 

—Decrease   in   Available    Supply   ofUnskilled  Laborers— ^ 

vii 


Contents 

PAGE 

Apathetic  Attitude  of.  United.  States— Energetic  Encourage 
ment  of  Immigration  by  the  Dominion  of  Canada — Impera 
tive  Needs  of  Our  Northwestern  and  Southern  States — 
Organization  of  Immigration  and  Development  Associations 
— Efficiency  and  Desirability  of  Italian  Labor  .  155 


CHAPTER    IX 
The  Call  for  Better  Distribution  / 

Temporary  Occurrences  of  Congestion  No  Justification  for  Ex 
clusion — The  Undertaking  of  Distribution  in  New  Zealand — 
Feasible  Cooperation  of  Our  National  Government — The  Call 
for  National  Action — Error  of  the  So-Called  "Educational 
Test " — Successful  Attraction  and  Utilization  of  Labor  Mis 
judged  as  "  Undesirable " — Imperative  Need  of  Provisions 
for  Systematic,  Comprehensive  and  Sustained  Distribution 
— National  Apathy  Intolerable — A  Forecast  Which  Only  In 
credible  Blundering  Can  Falsify  .  .  .  •  .  «  176 


CHAPTER  X 
^  Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

A  Popular  Fallacy — Our  Restrictive  Immigration  Laws — Authori 
tative  Records  of  Pauperism — High  Average  Physical  Vigor 
of  Italian  Immigrants— Their  Death  Rate  in  This  Country 
Comparatively  Low — Remarkable  Immunity  from  Disease 
Outside  of  Congested  Centres — Exceptional  Powers  of  Re 
sistance  and  Recuperation — Comparative  Criminality — The 
Immigrant  and  "  The  Slum  "—Police  Department  Records— 
Crimes  Attributable  to  Intoxication  Rare— Lack  of  Reliable 
Statistics — Crime  Rate  Decreasing  Both  in  Italy  and  Amer 
ica—Police  Commissioner  McAdoo's  Well-judged  Resort .  .  190 

viii 


Contents 

CHAPTER   XI 
Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation  ** 


Appreciation  of  American  Institutions  —  Fitness  for  Assimilation 
—  Entry  in  American  Politics—  Correspondence  of  Italian  and 
American  Political  Institutions—  Does  Heterogeneity  Inevi 
tably  Retard  Assimilation?  —  The  Demonstration  of  Assimila 
tion  in  Massachusetts  and  New  York  —  No  License  to  Neglectl 
Precautions  —  Noteworthy  Racial  Characteristic  of  the  Italian  I 
Advancing   Assimilation  —  Dread   of   Alien   Intermixture   anj 
Ancient  Conceit  —  Demonstrated  Genius  of  Italian  People  —  • 
Competence   As    Agricultural   Laborers—  Poverty    No   Valid 
Ground    for    Exclusion  —  Intermixture    Not    Detrimental  —  • 
Italian  Capacity  for  Education  —  Extension  of  Reading  —  Cer- 
tain  Advance  to  Good  Citizenship     ......  221 


CHAPTER  XII 
^Privileges  and  Duties  of  Italian- American  Citizenship^ 

Alleged  Lack  of  IdentincajLJQJLJy-iiJi  American  Interests— Rising 
Ajjirpf*ia.i-.inn  nf  Opjinrtmutiea  Open  to  American  Citizens-^ 
Privileges  and  Advantages  of  Citizenship — Obligations  Rest 
ing  on  Naturalized  Citizens— Fidelity  to  Oath  of  Allegiance 
and  Integrity  of  Republican  Institutions — Duty  to  Exalt 
Standard  of  Citizenship  by  Personal  Conduct  and  Every  In 
fluence  at  the  Command  of  the  Citizen 249 


THE  ITALIAN  IN  AMERICA 

CHAPTEE  I 

THE    FLOW    OF    EMIGRATION 

It  is  only  of  late  years  that  any  study  of  Italian  immi 
gration,  capacity  and  character  has  become  of  any  national 
concern  to  this  country.  Long  ago  there  used  to  be  a 
childish  patter  in  our  primary  schools :  "In  1492  Columbus 
crossed  the  ocean  blue."  Most  of  the  children  had  in 
mind  that  Columbus  was  born  in  Italy,  and  in  the  upper 
schools  there  was  some  slight  tracing  of  the  opening  of 
North  America  to  immigrants  through  the  guidance  of 
the  Cabots  and  Yerrazano.  But  there  was  little  reckon 
ing  of  any  contribution  of  living  Italians  to  American 
development.  Our  scholars,  at  large,  were  far  more  at 
tracted  by  the  memorials  of  the  Old  Roman  Empire  than 
by  the  present  day  problems  of  Italy.  The  uncovering 
of  a  headless  and  armless  bust  was  much  more  interesting 
than  the  inspection  of  an  Italian  rookery. 

We  knew  in  a  general  way  the  dreary  annals  of  Italian 
decadence — of  the  provincial  and  civic  alienations — of  the 

1 


The  Italian  in  America 

regal  and  oligarchic  impositions — of  foreign  invasions  and 
internecine  conflicts — of  the  greedy  extortions  of  the  rul 
ing  classes  and  the  heavy  burdens  of  the  toiling  masses. 
We  were  moved  to  sympathy  with  the  ardor  and  struggles 
of  high  spirited  patriots  for  the  redemption  of  their  father 
land.  Garibaldi,  Cavour,  Mazzini — all  who  shared  in  the 
labors  and  perils  through  which  Italy  was  freed  and  uni 
fied — were  honored  in  America  perhaps  more  highly  than 
in  any  other  country  in  the  world,  outside  of  their  native 
land. 

But  we  had  no  thought  of  any  particular  appeal  of  Italy 
to  us  or  of  her  entry  in  force  into  the  pressing  problems  of 
our  own  life  and  growth.  Outside  of  the  passing  survey 
of  tourists,  the  Italian  common  people  were  practically 
known  to  us  only  by  the  sight  of  a  rambling  organ-grinder 
or  image-seller.  This  travesty  of  the  wandering  minstrel 
of  romance,  twitching  his  plaintive  monkey,  and  this 
peddler  of  plaster  casts  on  a  headboard,  were  the  current 
expositions  of  Italy  in  this  country  for  many  years,  until 
the  common  people  began  to  come  over  in  swarms  and 
enlarge  our  familiar  view  of  the  Italian  in  America. 
/  There  is  a  notable  peculiarity  in  the  flow  of  Italian 
immigration  to  this  country.  From  the  earliest  days  of 
the  colonization  of  America  up  to  less  than  a.  generation 
ago,  the  influx  from  Italy  was  barely  a  trickley'so  incon 
siderable  that  a  microscope  is  almost  needed' to  distin 
guish  the  Italian  resident  population  in  1850  as  portrayed 

2 


The  Flow  of  Emigration 

in  the  Census  plate  (No.  17)  showing  the  proportion  and 
advance  of  leading  foreign  born  nationalities  in  the 
closing  half  of  the  last  century.  Only  a  slight  advance 
in  numbers  is  shown  in  the  plates  for  the  succeeding 
censuses  of  1860  and  1870,  though  the  exact  amount  of 
the  Italian  influx  during  these  decades  is  not  strictly 
determinable  from  the  lack  of  reliable  records. 

In  18&Q  an_  appreciable  increase  appearsT  but  the  ad 
vance  was  even  then  of  comparatively  inconsiderable  im 
portance.  Though  it  was  more  than  tripled  in  the  suc 
ceeding  decade  from  1880  to  1890,  the  Italian  population 
in  the  United  States  by  the  record  of  the  census  of  1890 
is  given  as  only  182,580.  The  total  influx  up  to  this  date 
can  scarcely  have  exceeded  500,000,  and  the  greater  part 
of  this  total  was  composed  of  those  making  only  a  tran 
sient  stay.  This  is  plainly  determined  by  the  statistics 
reported  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Senner,  formerly  United  States 
Commissioner  of  Immigration,  computing  the  total  num 
ber  of  immigrants  from  Italy  between  the  years  1872  and 
1890  as  356,062.  "With  any  just  allowance  for  settlement 
by  Italians  prior  to  1872,  it  is  obvious  that  more  than  half 
of  the  immigrants  within  the  recorded  period  had  left  the 
United  States  for  their  own  or  other  countries,  although 
a  progressive  increase  in  the  percentage  of  settlers  is  noted 
with  probable  certainty. 

The  record  of  immigration  for  1890  and  subsequent 
years  to  date  is  more  exactly  traceable. 

3 


j 


The  Italian  in  America 

IMMIGRATION  FROM  ITALY  TO  THE  UNITED  STATES 


Italy  —  Continental    . 

IKK) 
51  799 

1891 
72  704 

1892 
59  160 

1893 
71  145 

Sicily  and  Sardinia.  . 

294 

3,351 

2  977 

1  771 

Italy  

1894 
43,967 

1895 
36  961 

1896 
68060 

1897 
59431 

1898 
58613 

1899 
Italy   .               77.419 

1900 
100.135 

1901 
135.996 

1902 
178.375 

1903 
230.622 

1904 
193.296 

This  gives  a  total,  from  the  census  year  of  1890  up  to 
and  including  the  census  year  of  1900,  of  655,888,but  this 
influx  only  increased  the  number  of  resident  Italians,  ac 
cording  to  the  last  census,  to  a  total  of  484,703  in  the 
United  States,  including  all  insular  territories.  - 

The  aggregate  increase  of  the  influx  in  the  four  years 
succeeding  the  census  year  of  1890  mounted  up  to  738,289, 
but  this,  as  above,  does  not  represent  the  actual  increase 
of  resident  population  born  in  Italy,  for  this  total  is 
diminished  by  the  numbers  returning  annually,  as  well 
as  by  deaths,  so  that  no  correct  estimate  of  the  existing 
addition  to  our  population  through  immigration  from 
Italy  is  likely  to  exceed  materially  one  per  cent,  of  the 
present  population  of  this  country.  This  exhibit  compiled 
from  official  returns  suffices  to  mark  the  futility  of  the 
assumption  that  the  influx  from  Italy  is  affecting  to  any 
material  extent  the  dominant  racial  character  of  our 
population. 

How  this  influx  was  distributed  up  to  the  close  of  the 
census  year  1900  is  officially  determined  in  the  record  of 

4 


The  Flow  of  Emigration 

the  last  census,  marking  the  apportionment  in  five  com 
prehensive  divisions,  and  the  individual  states  as  follows : 

1900 
Population  born  in  Italy. 

The  United  States. .  484,207 


North  Atlantic  Division 352,065 

Maine 1,334 

New    Hampshire 947 

Vermont    2,154 

Massachusetts   28,785 

Rhode  Island 8,972 

Connecticut    19,105 

New   York 182,248 

New  Jersey 41,865 

Pennsylvania   66,655 

South  Atlantic  Division 10,509 

Delaware 1,122 

Maryland    2,449 

District  of  Columbia 930 

Virginia 781 

West  Virginia 2,921 

North   Carolina 201 

South   Carolina 180 

Georgia    218 

Florida    1,707 

North  Central  Division 55,085 


Ohio    11,321 

Indiana   1,327 

Illinois 23,523 

Michigan  6,178 

Wisconsin  .                                    2,172 


The  Italian  in  America 


1900. 
Population  born  in  Italy. 

Minnesota  2,222 

Iowa  1,198 

Missouri    4,345 

North   Dakota 700 

South   Dakota 360 

Nebraska    752 

Kansas 987 

South  Central  Division 26,158 

Kentucky  679 

Tennessee  1,222 

Alabama    862 

Mississippi   845 

Louisiana    17,431 

Texas  3,942 

Indian   Territory 573 

Oklahoma  28 

Arkansas    576 

Western  Division 40,210 

Montana  2,199 

Wyoming   781 

Colorado   6,818 

New  Mexico 661 

Arizona   699 

Utah 1,062 

Nevada    1/296 

.    Idaho  779 

Washington  2,124 

Oregon  1,014 

California  22,777 

From  this  table  a  regrettable  lack  of  a  better  propor 
tioned  distribution  of  the  influx  thus  far  is  evident.     72.7 

6 


The  Flow  of  Emigration 

par  cent.ofjtb£  Italians  in  this  country  are  clustered  in 
the  North  AtlanticjnjyisioTi,  a/pd  11.4  per  cent,  in  the 
North  Central  Division.  There  is  a  better  average  dis 
tribution  in  the  "Western  Division,  containing  8.3  per 
cent,  of  the  Italian  population,  though  by  far  the  greater 
part  are  settled  in  California  and  Colorado.  In  the  South 
Central  Division  there  are  5.4  per  cent.,  Louisiana  and 
Texas  containing  by  far  the  greater  proportion  of  this 
percentage.  The  South  Atlantic  Division  has  thus  far 
attracted  less  than  a  thirtieth  part  of  the  number  in  the 
North  Atlantic  Division,  and  a  little  more  than  a  fiftieth 
part  of  the  total  of  Italians  in  this  country,  showing  a 
percentage  of  only  2.2. 

It  is  interesting  to  mark  also  that  the  relative  contri 
bution  of  Italy  to  the  total  foreign  born  population  of 
this  country  was  less  than  a  twentieth  at  the  last  census 
taking,  or  in  exact  percentage,  4.7.  Although  the  num 
ber  of  Italians  in  the  South  Central  Division  was  less 
than  a  twelfth  of  the  number  in  the  North  Atlantic  Divi 
sion,  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  comparative  percentage  in 
the  former,  7.3,  was  almost  exactly  as  great  as  the  per 
centage  in  the  latter  division.  7.4. 

The  tendency  of  the  influx  to  cluster  in  cities,  the  more 
or  less  congested  centres  of  population,  is  pronounced , 
andjyill  be  pflrtifi^l^rl^a.fifimmtftH  for.  Qlthe  total  pop- 
ulation  born  in  Italy,  in  this  country — 302,324,  consti 
tuting  62.4  per  cent.,  were  resident  in  the  160  principal 

7 


The  Italian  in  America 

cities  in  1900.  This  is  considerably  less  than  the  percent 
age  of  the  Eussian  born  population  in  the  same  cities, 
74.9,  with  the  exception  of  the  natives  of  Russian-Poland, 
showing  only  a  percentage  of  62.7;  but  it  is  considerably 
more  than  the  average  of  the  total  foreign  born,  49.5. 
It  is  worth  renTSrfein^j  liuwevur,  that  't'he  percentage  of 
Italians  attracted  to  the  cities  is  almost  exactly  the  same 
as_that  of  the  Irish,  62.  percent,  of  whom  are  recorded 
as  residing  in  these  160  principal  cities.  In  view  of  the 
relatively  long  residence  of  the  Irish  in  this  country,  the 
attraction  to  the  city,  so  far  as  it  is  objectionable,  is  ap 
parently  more  lamentable  than  in  the  case  of  the  Italians, 
though  they  are  far  more  rarely  reproached  for  the  aggra 
vation  of  congestion. 

In  twenty-six  of  the  cities  noted,  the  Italian  born  pop 
ulation  exceeded  1,000,  the  numerical  distribution  being 
in  order: 

1.  New  York 145,433 

2.  Philadelphia   17,830 

3.  Chicago 16,008 

4.  Boston    13,738 

5.  Newark    8,537 

6.  Providence 6,256 

7.  New  Orleans 5,866 

8.  Pittsburg  5,709 

9.  Buffalo  5,669 

10.  New  Haven 5,262 

11.  Paterson    4,266 

12.  Jersey  City 3,832 

13.  Cleveland 3,065 


The  Flow  of  Emigration 

14.  Hoboken 2,360 

15.  St.  Louis 2,227 

1C.  Baltimore 2,042 

17.  Waterbury    2,007 

18.  Hartford    1,952 

19.  Utica  1,661 

20.  Bridgeport   1,436 

21.  Trenton    1,337 

22.  Youngstown    1,331 

23.  Scranton    1,312 

24.  Rochester  1,278 

25.  Syracuse    1,232 

26.  Kansas  City 1,034 

Since  the  date  of  the  census  record  it  is  certain  that  the 
Italian  born  population  in  all  American  cities  has  increased 
more  or  less  through  the  influx  of  immigration,  for  they 
have  received,  as  before,  the  greater  part  of  those  com 
ing  over,  but  the  distribution  has  varied  widely  in  some 
cases,  changing  materially  the  order  given  in  the  city 
record  of  1900,  and  including  cities  not  before  mentioned, 
like  Schenectady  and  Los  Angeles,  in  the  stated  list. 

In  the  computation  of  the  Italian  population  in  America 
it  is  usual  to  include  the  first  generation,  at  least,  born 
here,  having  one  or  both  parents  born  in  Italy.  This 
enumeration  raises  the  total  of  the  so-called  Italian  pop 
ulation  in  America,  according  to  the  statistical  tables 
prepared  under  the  direction  of  the  Italian  Chamber  of 
Commerce,  to  748,855  in  the  year  1900.  This  number 
will  be  slightly  reduced  if  the  reckoning  is  confined  to 
those  having  an  Italian  father,  in  which  case  the  total 

9 


The  Italian  in  America 

is  computed  to  be  742,197.  According  to  this  latter 
computation,  the  percentage  of  Italians  residing  in 
American  cities  is  77.9,  or  more  than  three-fourths  of  the 
total. 

(The  same  statistical  tables  give  the  Italian  population  of 
the  State  of  New  York,  including  children  whose  fathers 
were  born  in  Italy,  as  272,572  in  1900.  ,  The  city  of  New 
York  in  that  year  contained  more  than  two-fifths  of  the 
total  in  the  State,  or  in  exact  figures,  225,026.  The  rapid 
increase  in  the  State  during  the  last  three  years  is  doubt 
lessly  quite  accurately  marked  in  the  March  (1904)  Bul 
letin  of  the  Italian  Chamber  of  Commerce.  /  It  is  here 
computed  that  there  were  in  Greater  New  York  at  the 
end  of  the  year  1903,  382,775  Italians,  including  children 
whose  fathers  were  born  in  Italy,  and  that  the  number 
in  the  entire  State  had  risen  to  486,175.  ) 

The  division  of  sexes  in  the  total  of  Italian  immigration 
has  not  been  exactly  marked,  though  it  is  reckoned  that 
the  proportion  of  males  to  females  has  been  at  least  four 
to  one,  and  probably  not  less  than  five  to  one.  For  the 
past  decade,  however,  it  has  been  repeatedly  noted  that 
the  percentage  of  women  among  these  immigrants  has 
5een  increasing,  indicating  a  progressive  firmness~oT "set 
tlement  here  and  a  rising  intention  to  reside  Eere^perma- 
TiQTif.iy..  This  tendency  was  first  particularly  marked  by 
Dr.  J.  H.  Senner,  IL  S.  Commissioner  of  Immigration, 
in  his  discussion  of  " Immigration  from  Italy"  in  the 

10 


The  Flow  of  Emigration 

North  American  Keview  for  June,  1896.  He  observed 
that  the  percentage  of  women  and  children  in  the  annual 
Italian  immigration  to  this  country  was  even  then  steadily 
rising.  This  was  accompanied  by  a  corresponding  de 
crease  in  the  "  birds  of  passage,"  and  the  increasing  tend 
ency  of  Italian  immigrants  to  definite  settlement  was 
proved,  as  he  states,  ' '  by  the  systematic  statistics  kept  at 
the  Port  of  New  York  since  July  1st,  1893,  as  to  numbers 
of  persons  arriving  to  join  members  of  their  immediate 
families."  Examination  showed  that  from  July  1st, 
1893,  to  the  end  of  December,  1895,  more  than  one-third 
of  the  immigrants  came  to  join  members  of  their  imme 
diate  families ;  and  in  this  time  the  number  of  outgoing 
Italians  exceeded  the  number  of  those  who  made  thoir 
first  entry  into  the  United  States  by  more  than  25,000. 
In  the  Keport  of  the  Industrial  Commission  on  Immi 
gration  (1901,  Vol.  15,  p.  203),  compiled  from  original 
figures  in  the  annual  reports  of  the  Superintendent 
Immigration,  1895-1899,  the  percentage  of  male  immi- 
grants  from  Northern  Italy  is  given  as  78.19,  and  the 
percentage  of  male  immigrants  from  Southern  Italy  at 
75.50.  Subsequent  reports  of  the  Commissioner- General 
of  Immigration  show  the  percentage  of  male  immigrants 
to  be  still  declining,  and  in  the  latest  annual  report  fo* 
the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1904,  of  the  total  of  193,- 
296  immigrants  from  Italy,  including  Sicily  and  Sardinia^ 
149,363  are  entered  as  males  and  43,933  as  females,  show] 

11 


The  Italian  in  America 

ing  that  more  than  one-fifth  of  the  immigrants  for  this 
last  year  of  record  were  women  and  girls.  In  the  same 
report  the  number  of  Italian  children  under  14  years  of 
age  arriving  during  the  same  fiscal  year  is  given  as  24,528, 
showing  a  material  increase  in  the  settlement  of  families 
here. 

It  appears  in  the  Report  of  the  Commissioner- General 
of  Immigration  for  the  year  ending  June  30th,  1903,  that 
of  the  233,546  Italian  immigrants  arriving  during  that 
fiscal  year  at  the  ports  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
including  those  debarred,  only  11,246  had  reached  the 
age  of  45  years  and  over,  and  that  197,267  were  between 
the  ages  of  14  and  45  years.  The  showing  for  this  year 
of  greatest  influx  to  date  is  substantially  typical,  and 
apparently  marks  an  extraordinary  proportionate  con 
tribution  of  able-bodied  persons  to  the  working  capital  of 
this  country.  In  view  of  the  official  returns,  it  is  difficult 
to  discern  any  foothold  for  the  assumption  oi:  any  reckless 
dumping  of  the  aged  and.  infirm  or  persons  unable  to  work 
for  their  own^upporL  hi  the  How  of  immigration  from 
Italy. 

It  was  calculated  with  particular  elaboration  by  Fred 
erick  Knapp,  Commissioner  of  Immigration  for  the  State 
of  New  York  in  1870,  that  the  average  economic  value 
of  an  able-bodied  male  immigrant  over  20  years  of  age  is 
$1,125.  It  is  no  practical  concern  whether  this  is  an 
over  or  an  under  estimate.  It  is  incontestable  that  every 

12 


The  Flow  of  Emigration 

honest,  able,  willing  laborer  is  a  material  addition  to  the 
working  capital — the  productive  power  of  an  undeveloped 
country.     Unless  it  can  be  established  by  evidence  that     * 
the  mass  of  immigration  from  Italy  is  not  composed  of  >q 
honest,  able-bodied,  willing:  laborers,   there  can  be  no  Jl 
economic  warrant  for  any  arbitrary  resort  to  exclusion.  ** 
If  there  are  complaints  of  congestion,  the  rational  economic 
resort  is  betterment  of  distribution — not  the  choking  off 
of  the  productive  flow. 

An  authoritative  witness  of  the  character  and  capacity 
of  the  bulk  of  the  immigration  from  Italy,  Adolfo  Rossi, 
the  present  Supervisor  of  the  Italian  Emigration  De 
partment,  has  recently  given  evidence  directly  to  the 
point  in  the  weekly  review  of  the  New  York  Charity  Or 
ganization  Society  Charities,  published  May  7th,  1904. 
It  is  his  observation  that  emigration  is  taking  away 
from  his  own  country  ' '  the  flower  of  our  laboring  class, 
which  leaves  Italy,  not  to  seek  a  living,  but  greater  com 
fort.  To  this,  naturally,  contributes  the  selection  exer 
cised  by  your  immigration  laws  which  let  in  only  the 
good  and  reject  the  bad.  My  government  allows  the 
American  commission  of  physicians  of  your  own  selection 
at  Italian  ports  a  pretty  free  hand.  They  examine  the 
immigrant  not  only  for  trachoma,  but  make  a  fairly  thor 
ough  examination  for  hernia,  for  diseases  due  to  senil 
ity,  etc.,  thus  adding  a  potent  artificial  selection." 

"  Then  I  notice  that  the  newspapers  write  of  the  influx 

13 


The  Italian  in  America 

of  a  lot  of  poverty-stricken  Italians.  Just  look  at  the 
facts;  84  per  cent,  of  Italians  coming  here  are  between 
18  and  45  years  of  age.  That  means  that  84  per  cent,  of 
such  immigran t sT>elong  to  the  working  age.  They  are, 
in  other  words,  producers.  You  get  this  product  with 
out  the  expense  incurred  in  its  raising.  Every  Italian  of 
18,  for  instance,  costs  his  country,  at  the  very  lowest, 
$1,000  to  bring  him  up.  At  18  he  begins  to  be  a  pro 
ducer,  but  by  leaving  Italy  the  $1,000  invested  by  his 
country  in  him  is  lost.  This  '  human  capital '  of  fresh, 
strong,  young  men  is  the  contribptirm  of  Europe  to  the 
new  land.^AW  e  spend  a  thousand  dollars  to  bring  up  an< 
jvelop  a  young  man,  and  then  you  reap  the  profits  o) 
the  investing 

"n  face  of  the  official  reports  and  data  here  briefly  sum 
marized,  there  is  a  declared  intention  of  influential  formers 
of  public  opinion  to  urge  legislation  by  Congress  inten 
tionally  discriminating,  in  effect  if  not  in  form,  against 
the  flow  of  immigration  from  Italy  in  a  way  that  will  op 
erate  to  exclude  a  great  portion  of  it.  In  the  Review  of 
Special  Reports  in  the  Report  of  the  Industrial  Commis 
sion  on  Immigration  to  Congress,  December  5th,  1901,  the 
practical  issue  is  assumedly  brought  to  a  head  (p.  LYIII) 
in  the  words:  "-The  question  now  uppermost  is  that  of 
the  direct  restriction  of  immigrants  who  are  considered 
undesirable  on  general  economic  and  social  grounds,  and 
not  merely  on  the  ground  of  contract  labor."  Unfor- 

14 


FZote?  o/  Emigration 


tunately  there  is  a  lack  of  precision  in  the  terms  of  this 
statement  which  opens  it  inevitably  to  further  question. 
"What  is  the  standard  of  desirability  which  can  or  should 
be  used  in  practice  as  a  gauge  for  admission  to  this  coun 
try,  and  who  are  to  determine  this  standard  ? 
/""There  is,  undoubtedly,  a  current  opinion  that  the  immi- 
[  grants  from  Southern  and  Eastern  Europe  are  relatively 
I  less  desirable  to  this  country  than  the  immigrants  as  a 
\£>dv  from  Northern  and  Western  Europe.  ^This.  inde( 
has  been  so  pronounced  and  outspoken  that  the  present 
Commissioner-  General  of  Immigration  has  apparently 
been  led  to  set  an  official  stamp  of  endorsement  upon  it  in 
his  report  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June  30th,  1903 
(p.  6). 

"  While  some  encouragement  may  be  gained  from  con 
sideration  of  the  foregoing  tabulated  statements  showing 
that  the  ratio  of  increase  in  immigration  from  Northern 
Europe  was  greatly  in  excess  of  that  of  the  increase  from 
Southern  Europe,  yet  the  fact  remains  that  the  great  bulk 
of  aliens  added  to  our  population  during  the  year  just 
passed  came  from  Austria-  Hungary,  Italy  and  Russia, 
those  three  countries  alone  sending  572,726  of  the  total 
number  of  steerage  aliens  —  more  than  two-thirds." 

Nevertheless,  it  is  scarcely  credible  that  anyone  will 
seriously  propose  that  Congress  should  establish  a  geo 
graphical  line  of  exclusion  across  the  centre  of  Europe, 
cutting  off  immigration  from  Spain,  Italy,  Austria,  South- 

15 


The  Italian  in  America 

era  Russia  and  Greece.  Nor  is  it  probable  that  any  avowed 
discrimination  will  be  proposed  and  enacted  to  the  disad 
vantage  of  any  particular  nation  or  nations  of  Europe. 
It  is,  however,  much  less  certain  that  some  covert  dis 
crimination  will  not  be  advanced  by  the  pressure  of  preju 
dice  in  the  form  of  a  restrictive  measure,  ostensibly  bearing 
uniformly  and  equally  on  all  nationalities  contributing  to 
the  stream  of  immigration.  In  fact,  it  is  hardly  disguised 
1  that  the  proposed  "educational  test"  for  admission  will 
Jhave  this  effect,  as  it  has  been  expressly  pointed  out  by 
its  advocates  that  it  will  bear  most  onerously  on  the  nations 
of  Southern  Europe,  which  their  current  opinion  is  disposed 
to  stamp  as  "undesirable." 

Thus  the  issue  will  not  be  drawn  barely  wrhether  it  is 
expedient  or  just  to  deny  to  an  honest,  willing  laborer, 
who  is  unable  to  read  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States, 
permission  to  live  and  work  for  a  livelihood  in  a  republic 
exalting  the  standard  of  liberty :  but  there  will  be  reliance 
on  the  fomented  prejudice  against  the  Southern  Latin  race£"| 
to  urge  this  measure  as  a  handy  expedient  of  exclusion  of  / 
w      great  part  of  the  immigrants  from  Southern  Europe,  with- 
w  out  seriously  affecting  the  influx  from  Northern  Europe, 
which  is  now  too  strongly  intrenched  here  for  attack. 

In  view  of  this  probability,  it  is  of  practical  concern  to 
examine  the  grounds  of  this  prejudice  so  far  as  it  affects 
the  character  and  contribution  of  immigration  from  Italy, 
which  is  the  particular  object  of  this  special  inquiry.  A 

16 


DC 

7 


The  Flow  of  Emigration 

pithy,  able  and  soberly  phrased  summary  of  the  grounds 
of  discrimination  was  made  by  Representative  Samuel  "W. 
McCall  of  Massachusetts,  who  introduced  in  the  House, 
in  the  Spring  of  1896,  the  "  educational  test "  bill  which* 
he  said,  was  principally  prepared  and  specially  advocated 
by  the  Immigration  Kestriction  League  of  Boston.  He 
pointed  out  then  that  the  exclusion  effected  by  the  test  of 
illiteracy  would  affect  chiefly  the  immigration  from  the 
Mediterranean  ports,  and  argued  that  this  exclusion  was 
desirable  on  the  ground  that  the  influx  from  those  ports 
was  "  f rornj*a.fifts  not  suited  to  onr  civilization  "  because 
"radically  different  from  us  in^ education,  habits  of  life 
and  institutions  of  government. "  Moreover,  this  objec 
tionable  class  of  immigration,  not  kindred  nor  readily 
assimilating,  did  not  go  "  to  our  unoccupied  territory ,  but 
settled  down  in  our  large  cities,  in  our  congested  districts. 
They  add  to  the  labor  problems  that  are  vexing  them,  ancT|f 
most  of  them  go  into  the  dangerous  slums  of  our  Eastern 
cities. ' ' 

This  objection  has  been  amplified  and  more  bluntly  and 
bitterly  urged  in  a  current  outcry  against  Italian  immi 
gration.  It  is  urged  that  the  Italian  race  stock  is  inferioTr"""" 
and  degraded ;  that  it  will  not  assimilate  naturally  or  read 
ily  with  the  prevailing  " Anglo-Saxon  "  race  stock  of  thisj 
country;  that  intermixture,  if  practicable,  will  be  detri 
mental;  that  servility,  filthy  habits  of  life,  and  a  hope 
lessly  degraded  standard  of  needs  and  ambitions  have  been  J 

17  ^- 


The  Italian  in  America 

\    /ingrained  in  the  Italians  by  centuries  of  oppression  and 
, ^ abject  poverty;  that  they  are  incapable  of  any  adequate 
appreciation  of  our  free  institutions  and  the  privileges  and 
uties  of  citizenship;  that  the  greater  part  are  illiterate 
nd  likely  to  remain  so ;  that  they  are  lowering  and  will 
inevitably  lower  the  American  standard  of  living  and  labor 
nd  citizenship;  that  they  are  crowding  out  American 
laborers  from  avenues  of  employment;  that  their  labor 
is  no  longer  needed  here  for  the  development  of  the  coun 
try  ;  that  a  large  percentage  are  paupers  or  on  the  verge 
of  pauperism,  and  that  the  inevitable  influence  of  their 
"^influx  is  pauperizing;  that  they  make  the  slums  in  our 
?  large  cities;  that  they  burden  our  charitable  institutions 
si*     and  prisons;  and  that  there  is  no  material  evidence  of 
progress  and  prospect  of  relief  without  the  enforcement 
of  a  wide  ranging  exclusion. 

In  view  of  these  charges  and  assumptions  it  seemed  de 
sirable  to  investigate  the  causes  and  flow  of  immigration 
and  the  advance  of  Italian  settlement  in  this  country  by 
wide  ranging  correspondence  and  close  personal  observa 
tion.  The  facts  thus  gathered  with  the  simple  intention 
of  candid  inquiry  and  accurate  statement  are  submitted 
for  consideration  in  the  following  chapters,  to  which  the 
authors  associated  in  this  presentation  have  contributed 
from  their  special  investigations.  They  present  in  suc 
cession  an  examination  of  the  Italian  race  stock,  existing 
Italian  characteristics  and  conditions  of  life  in  Italy,  the 

18 


The  Flow  of  Emigration 

causes  and  regulation  of  immigration,  its  advance  in  the 
cities  and  agricultural  districts  of  this  country,  its  effect 
upon  the  standard  and  opportunities  of  American  labor 
and  the  course  of  national  development,  its  alleged  pau 
perizing  and  criminal  tendencies,  and  the  sum  of  Italian 
accomplishment  and  rational  hope  of  progress  here  as  an 
integral  part  of  the  fusing  of  stocks  in  the  complex  Amer 
ican.  ELIOT  LORD. 


19 


CHAPTER  II 

THE    INHERITANCE    AND    PROGRESS    OF    UNITED    ITALY 

The  poorest  Italian  that  comes  to  this  country  is  joint- 
heir  to  a  splendid  heritage.  Unfortunately  for  him,  it 
does  not  fill  his  pockets  nor  better  his  rating  in  the  returns 
of  official  inspectors.  But  it  might  justly  advance  him  to 
higher  consideration  in  the  eyes  of  the  American  people. 
Every  student  of  history  must  know  it  already,  yet  it  is 
so  rarely  held  up  to  view  in  the  midst  of  current  flouts  and 
" Anglo- Saxon  "  conceits,  that  I  venture  to  recall  its  in 
effaceable  outlines. 

The  far-reaching  ancestry  of  the  natives  of  South  and 
Central  Italy  runs  back  to  the  dawn  of  the  earliest  Greek 
civilization  in  the  peninsula  and  to  the  Etruscan,  driving 
bronze  chariots  and  glittering  in  artful  gold  when  the 
Angles,  Saxons  and  Jutes,  and  all  the  wild  men  of  North 
ern  Europe  were  muffling  their  nakedness  in  the  skins  of 
wild  beasts,  and  making  their  lair  in  rock  caverns  or  the 
rudest  of  huts.  In  the  seat  of  his  forefathers  of  purest 
Latin  origin  was  laid  the  foundation  of  the  traditional 
kingdom  of  Romulus  and  its  offspring,  the  Roman  Re 
public  and  Empire,  outstretching  its  arms  and  its  glory 


The  Inheritance  and  Progress  of  United  Italy 

from  the  German  ocean  to  the  deserts  of  Africa,  and  from 
the  Pillars  of  Hercules  to  the  Euphrates. 

If  Sicily  had  for  centuries  no  more  share  in  the  domi 
nance  of  Rome  than  any  other  conquered  province — and 
if  the  greater  part  of  the  inhabitants  of  Italy  were  de 
pendent  confederates  and  not  Roman  citizens — neverthe 
less,  Italy  was  the  homestead  of  the  masterful  Republic 
and  Empire,  and  bore  the  most  signal  and  lasting  impress 
of  their  attainments  and  grandeur.  And  in  the  evolution 
of  liberalism,  the  time  came,  it  will  be  remembered,  when 
all  the  free  inhabitants  of  the  Empire  were  declared  to  be 
Roman  citizens  and  equal  heirs  to  the  glory  of  Rome. 

Even  when  the  crumbling  Empire  succumbed  to  bar 
barian  invasion  and  could  no  longer  protect  the  confines 
of  its  homestead,  the  languishing  force  of  its  civilization 
was  still  potent  to  mould  the  invaders.  Ostrogoth  and 
Yisigoth,  German  and  Frank  alike,  paid  homage  to  the 
majesty  of  helpless  Rome.  Alaric  lays  greedy  hands  on 
the  spoils  of  the  Imperial  city,  but  his  successor,  Athaulf, 
yields  to  the  spell  of  the  shadowy  sceptre  of  empire  and 
cloaks  his  invasion  of  Spain  in  the  guise  of  a  Roman  offi 
cial,  obediently  proceeding  to  the  recovery  of  an  old 
Roman  province. 

Odoacer,  chief  of  the  German  mercenaries,  when  the 
line  of  Western  emperors  comes  to  an  end,  still  professes 
his  allegiance  to  Zeno,  head  of  the  reunited  Empire  by  the 
voice  of  the  Roman  Senate,  and  is  content  to  rule  in  Italy 

21 


The  Italian  in  America 

with  no  loftier  title  than  the  vague  investiture  of  Patri 
cian.  "When  Theodoric,  King  of  the  Yisigoths,  wrests 
Italy  from  Odoacer  (489  A.D.),  a  warrant  is  sought  and 
obtained  in  the  commission  of  the  same  emperor, 
Zeno. 

Three  centuries  later,  Pepin,  King  of  the  Franks,  saves 
Kome  from  the  threat  of  the  Lombards,  and  shelters  their 
dominion  in  Northern  Italy.  Still  the  title  of  "  Patri 
cian  "  is  all  that  he  ventures  to  claim  and  assert.  "When 
Constantine  the  Sixth  is  deposed  and  blinded  in  797  A.D. 
by  his  mother  Eirene,  the  unquenched  haughtiness  of 
Rome  cries  out  that  no  woman  can  be  Caesar  and  Augus 
tus,  and  makes  Karl,  son  of  Pepin,  the  great  Charlemagne 
of  mediaeval  romance,  Emperor  of  the  Romans.  Pope 
Leo  crowns  him  in  the  memorable  year  800  A.D.,  and  for 
more  than  a  thousand  years  thereafter  this  traditional 
memorial  of  the  glory  of  the  old  empire  has  been  prized  as 
an  investiture  without  a  peer,  transcending  the  dignity  of 
kings,  and  declaring  a  precedent,  even  if  waiving  an 
avowal  of  homage. 

Not  only  was  the  imperial  name  still  powerful  to  con 
jure  with  when  it  was  no  more  than  the  graveclothes  of 
the  dust  of  empire,  but  even  though  invaders  might  pro 
test  their  utter  contempt  of  the  enfeebled  Italians  and  the 
Roman  name,  they  were  assimilated  by  resistless  influ 
ences.  Thus  in  the  twelfth  century,  as  Taine  observes, 
the  invading  Germans  under  Frederick  Barbarossa,"count- 

23 


The  Inheritance  and  Progress  of  United  Italy 

ing  upon  finding  in  the  Lombards  men  of  the  same  race  as 
themselves,  were  surprised  to  find  them  so  Latinized,  hav 
ing  discarded  the  asperities  of  barbarian  rudeness  and  im 
bibed  from  sun  and  atmosphere  something  of  Roman  finesse 
and  gentleness,  preserving  the  elegance  of  diction  and  the 
urbanity  of  antique  customs,  and  imitating  even  to  their 
cities  and  the  regulation  of  public  affairs  the  ability  of  the 
ancient  Romans. ' '  * 

Christianity  was  essentially  the  religion  of  the  Empire 
after  Constantine  formally  professed  it  in  323  A.D.,  and 
was  carried  by  Roman  influence  even  beyond  the  bound 
aries  of  the  Imperial  Dominion.  Roman  Law  has  been 
the  foundation  and  frame  of  the  Civil  Law  of  "Western 
Europe.  The  spoken  language  of  Rome  is  not  only  the 
main  source  of  modern  Italian,  but  of  Spanish,  Provencal 
scmJ~"~FFench.  Even  in  the  land  once  part  of  the  old 
Roman  province  of  Dacia,  the  tongue  of  the  people  has 
the  same  root,  and  the  inhabitants  still  claim  their  herit 
age  in  their  names,  Roumans. 

For  more  than  a  thousand  years  after  the  days  of 
Caesar  Augustus,  the  only  books  written  in  Western 
Europe  were  in  Latin,  and  throughout  the  Middle  Ages 
Latin  was  everywhere  the  chosen  medium  in  the  observ 
ances  of  religion  and  the  preservation  of  learning.  The 
literature  of  the  Augustan  Age  has  never  ceasecT  to  be 
the  study  and  inspiration  of  the  world's  scholars,  and  the 

*  Otho  of  Freysingen. 
23 


The  Italian  in  America 

Latin  language  and  classics  have  formed  an  integral  part 
of  all  academic  education. 

What  the  old  Roman  civilization  has  been  to  the  world 
we  can  faintly  conceive,  too,  in  view  of  the  ruins  of  its 
cities — mines  of  treasures,  invaluable  to  the  historian  and 
the  artist,  and  marvellous  even  in  their  mutilation.  Fos 
terer  and  perpetuator  of  so  many  enlightening  and  refin 
ing  arts  and  pursuits,  Roman  civilization  has  made  its 
impress  so  clear  and  deep  on  mediaBval  and  modern  ages 
that  the  world  at  large  may  well  acknowledge  its  peculiar 
debt  to  the  forefathers  of  modern  Italy. 

The  transmission  in  Italy,  moreover,  of  the  Roman  civ 
ilization  was  less  impaired  and  more  progressive,  on  the 
whole,  than  in  any  other  country  till  the  close  of  the  six 
teenth  century.  Italian  coast  cities  grew  to  be  the  chief 
exemplars  of  commerce  and  the  originators  of  banking. 
All  memorials  of  ancient  art  and  learning  were  cherished 
in  museums  and  libraries.  The  chiefs  of  the  clergy  and 
the  Italian  nobility  were  often  liberal  patrons  of  artists. 

Then,  after  a  sluggish  and  dolorous  period,  there 
sprang  up  in  Italy  first  the  Renaissance — that  glorious  era 
of  reviving  fertility.  In  the  midst  of  an  epoch  of  pitiless 
wars  and  mortal  enmities,  St.  Francis  preaches  a  forgotten 
gospel  of  love.  Then  Greek  and  Latin  antiquity,  the  By 
zantine  and  Saracenic  Orient — the  Germanic  and  Italian 
middle  age — ' '  the  entire  past,  shattered,  amalgamated 
and  transformed,"  says  Taine,  "  seems  to  have  been 

24 


The  Inheritance  and  Progress  of  United  Italy 

melted  over  anew  in  the  human  furnace  in  order  to  flow 
out  in  fresh  form  in  the  hands  of  the  new  genius  of  Giotto, 
Arnolfo,  Brunelleschi  and  Dante."  Soon  Italy  is  to  be 
come  "  the  mother  of  the  new  learning— the  home  of  the 
younger  as  of  the  older  arts. ' ' 

In  the  fifteenth  century  diplomacy  had  largely  taken 
the  place  of  force.  With  the  coming  of  more  peaceful 
days  the  useful  arts  sprang  up  like  new  grass  after  rain. 
The  downtrodden  peasant  becomes  a  partner  of  his  land 
lord,  and  divides  with  him  the  harvest.  In  Lombardy 
there  is  irrigation  and  rotation  of  crops.  "Marble  quar 
ries,"  says  Taine,  "are  worked  at  Carrara,  and  foundry 
fires  are  lighted  in  the  Maremmes.  We  find  in  the  cities 
manufactories  of  silk,  glass,  paper,  books,  flax,  wool  and 
hemp;  Italy  alone  produces  as  much  as  all  Europe,  and 
furnishes  to  it  all  its  luxuries. "  *  *  *  "The  Medicis 
possess  sixteen  banking  houses  in  Europe;  they  bind  to 
gether  through  their  business  Eussia  and  Spain,  Scotland 
and  Syria.  *  *  *  They  entertain  at  their  court  rep 
resentatives  of  all  the  powers  of  Europe,  and  become  the 
councillors  and  moderators  of  all  Italy." 

Then  Donatello  decorates  the  Campanile  with  his  statues 
and  Ghiberti  casts  the  two  gates  of  the  Baptistery  on 
whose  doors  Pollaiolo,  his  pupil,  models  the  marvellous 
quail,  which  "  had  only  to  fly. "  Then  Dello  and  Veroc- 
chio  and  Ghirlandaijo,  and  all  the  splendid  company  of 
goldsmiths  and  bronze  workers  and  sculptors  and  fresco 

25 


The  Italian  in  America 

painters  prepare  the  way  for  the  perfect  flowering  of  the 
fine  arts  of  the  Kenaissance  in  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  Michael 
Angelo  and  Raphael. 

Thus  Italv^Jn-Akn  plinnn,  *f  TTninilfon  MflhlP,   bmUTir 

"  th^liberator  and  teacher  of  modern  Europe, "  "No 
country  owes  more  to  her  for  its  impulse  than  ( Anglo- 
Saxon ;  England/5  as  Mr.  Mabie  once  more  recalls.  The 
foremost  early  English  poets  and  dramatists — Chaucer, 
Wyatt,  Surrey,  Spencer,  Greene,  Webster,  Ford  and  Cyril 
Tourneur — show  distinctively  the  Italian  molding  in 
poetry  and  drama.  Even  the  master  minds  of  greatest 
native  force  and  fertility,  Bacon  and  Shakespeare,  would 
frankly  acknowledge  their  debt.  "  Shakespeare's  most 
romantic  heroines,  Juliet  and  Desdemona,"  observes  Wil 
fred  Scawen  Blunt  in  The  Speaker,  "  were  both  bor 
rowed,  as  we  know,  and  not  without  the  loss  of  dignity 
from  Bandello's  Italian  originals."  Dante,  Petrarch, 
Boccaccio  and  Ariosto  became  English  household  words 
through  translations  and  imitations.  From  the  dawn  of 
early  English  art  and  literature,  Italy  has  been  a  Mecca 
for  her  artists  and  scholars.  The  lofty  imagination  of 
Milton  first  expanded  in  Italian  air.  Here,  too,  the  rest 
less  and  embittered  heart  of  Byron  sought  solace.  All 
that  is  mortal  of  Shelley  and  Keats  lies  under  the  shadow 
of  Eome.  In  Florence  the  genius  of  Browning  reached 
its  zenith,  and  his  memorial  tablet  in  Venice  bears  the 
lines  of  his  poem — "  Open  my  heart  and  you  will  see, 

26 


The  Inheritance  and  Progress  of  United  Italy 

Graved  inside  of  it,  i  Italy.' "  The  influence  of  the  leader, 
even  in  decadence,  was  deathle 

can  America  forget  her  distinctive  indebtedness 
The  New  World  owes  to  Italy  the  debt  of  the  Old  and 
more.  May  she  not  well  remember  that  it  was  the  son 
of  a  Genoese  wool  comber  whose  unflagging  spirit  revealed 
her  existence  to  Europe — that  the  Florentine,  Amerigo 
Yespucci,  was  her  god-father — and  that  the  voyages  of 
the  Cabots  and  Yerrazano  first  traced  the  North  American 
coast  line  and  cleared  the  way  for  pioneer  immigration. 
There  must  be  a  strange  lack  of  memory  and  of  recogni 
tion  of  service  when  prejudice  against  Southern  Latin 
origin  would  put  up  an  irrational  bar  of  entry  in  the  face 
of  the  countrymen  of  Columbus. 

It  is  true  that  the  Italy  of  the  nineteenth  century  was 
very  different  in  its  comparative  standing  from  the  Italy 
of  the  sixteenth  century.  Then,  in  the  view  summarized 
in  Freeman's  "  General  Sketch  of  History,"  "it  might 
be  called  the  centre  of  Europe  in  that  it  had  more  to  do 
with  the  rest  of  the  world  than  any  other  country.  It  was 
the  country  to  which  others  looked  up  as  being  at  the  head 
in  arts,  learning  and  commerce ;  and  it  was  the  country, 
too,  where,  just  as  in  old  Greece,  there  was  the  greatest 
political  life  among  the  many  small  states."  For  three 
centuries  past  a  great  part  of  the  country  had  been  standing 
still  and  large  provinces  even  retrograding.  In  the  gen 
eral  advancement  of  Europe,  unhappy  and  distracted  Italy 

27 


The  Italian  in  America 

had  been  outstripped,  her  ambitions  stifled,  and  her  people 
of  the  South,  at  least,  crushed  under  burdens  that  sapped 
their  energies  and  barely  left  sufferable  their  struggle  for 
existence.  Even  her  persistent  dream  of  liberty  and 
union  had  been  the  mock  of  the  scoffer.  The  sneer  of  Met- 
ternich  was  the  more  bitterly  galling  in  its  near  approach 
to  the  truth;  "Italy  is  only  a  geographical  expression." 

Yet,  in  the  face  of  this  jeer,  United  Italy  has  uprisen 
in  fact  from  the  medley  of  jarring  and  dejected  states. 
Her  ideal  has  overcome  foreign  domination  and  internal 
discords.  Her  redemption  is  sure.  Her  union  grows 
every  year  more  intimate  and  perfect.  Her  old  divi 
sional  names  of  Sicilian,  Neapolitan,  Tuscan  and  Lom 
bard  are  sinking  out  of  sight  in  the  fused  Italian. 

In  ancient  times,  at  the  opening  of  historical  record, 
there  were  various  racial  divisions  in  Italy  more  or  less 
strongly  marked;  Gallic  and  Ligurian  in  the  North, 
Etruscan,  Latin  and  Oscan  in  the  Central  Provinces,  and 
Greek  probably  predominating  in  Southern  Italy  and 
Sicily.  Yet  all  of  these  stocks  were  derived  from  the 
primitive  Aryan  of  all  the  Western  nations  of  Europe  and 
their  assimilation  under  Rome's  unifying  influences  was 
continually  progressive.  In  modern  Italy  there  is  no 
materially  divergent  strain  of  blood  except  in  the  Alba 
nians  and  the  Greeks  of  the  South,  and  the  Arabic  ele 
ments  in  Sicily  and  Sardinia. 

The  frequent  foreign  invasions  have  not  materially  af- 

28 


The  Inheritance  and  Progress  of  United  Italy 

fected  this  prevalent  strain.  Existing  variations  in  char 
acter  and  habits  of  life  are  chiefly  attributable  to  varying 
political  divisions,  occupations  and  climate.  Ever  since 
the  fall  of  the  Empire  until  the  recent  unification,  Italy 
has  been  merely  a  medley  of  jealous  states  and  diverse 
forms  of  government,  and  these  governments  often  mut 
able,  if  only  in  the  exchange  of  one  set  of  oppressors  for 
another.  In  Central  Italy  especially  there  were  minute 
sub-divisions  into  city  states  with  independent  life,  policy, 
customs  and  social  distinctions. 

Unification  for  the  past  thirty  years  has  been  gradually 
fusing  or  obliterating  these  divisional  lines,  but  no  such 
brief  term  of  years  could  possibly  effect  their  extinction. 
The  first  comprehensive  advance  of  unification  was  the 
establishment  of  a  single  form  of  central  and  local  govern 
ments  and  the  application  of  a  single  body  of  laws.  The 
Piedmontese  legislation  and  administration  were  extended 
to  the  whole  of  Italy  to  meet  the  vital  need  of  the  preser 
vation  of  the  union.  Thenceforth  intelligent  public  spirit 
has  blocked  the  formation  of  any  party  domination  based 
on  sectional  division  lines.  The  general  plan  of  education , 
administration  of  justice  and  taxation  are  based  on  the 
like  unity  of  system.  One  of  the  most  important  advances 
toward  fusion  has  been  the  extension  in  every  practicable 
way  of  a  common  language — a  standard  Italian  in  place 
of  the  many  provincial  dialects.  Common  school  educa 
tion  is  effecting  this  throughout  the  country;  the  increased 

29 


The  Italian  in  'America 

circulation  of  newspapers  and  books  is  promoting  it,  and 
there  is  a  powerful  impulse  toward  this  unification  in  the 
military  service  of  the  nation.  Conscripts  are  taught  to 
speak  Italian  instead  of  dialects,  and  to  read  and  write  the 
common  medium. 

Pronounced  diversities  still  exist  also  in  provincial  dif 
ferences  of  occupation  and  degrees  of  progress.  The 
North  of  Italy  has  long  been  the  most  progressive  section 
through  the  comparative  freedom  of  its  institutions,  the 
diversification  of  its  industries  and  the  spirit  of  its  people. 
This  division  of  the  kingdom  is  notably  active,  industrious 
and  prospering.  The  latest  exposition  at  Turin  was  a 
signal  illustration  of  the  attainments  of  Italy  in  the  lead 
ing  industrial  arts.  Problems  of  the  development  of  this 
progressive  section  are  relatively  insignificant.  It  is  in 
Central  and  Southern  Italy  that  the  chief  dragweights  are 
encountered. 

C  Compared  with  the  South,  Central  Italy  is  already  hope- 
ully  advanced.     There  is  still  too  little  variation  of  indus- 
ry,  but  agriculture,  the  dominant  interest,  is  prosecuted 
with  high  intelligence.     The  peasant  farmer  in  Tuscany 
and  largely  in  all  Central  Italy  operates  on  the  share  or 
mezzeria  system — dividing  equally  the  products  of  his 
fields  with  his  landlord.    He  comprehends  fully  the  utility 
of  the  variation  of  crops.     He  raises  wheat  or  other  cereals, 
grapes  and  olives  on  the  same  podere.     He  knows  the 
capacity  of  his  land  thoroughly.     He  has  commonly  in- 

30 


The  Inheritance  and  Progress  of  United  Italy 

troduced  irrigation  where  necessary.  He  is  exceedingly 
capable  in  the  conduct  of  his  plantations  and  supplements 
his  crop  products  by  keeping  pigs  and  poultry,  breeding 
calves  and  sometimes  rearing  silkworms.  The  women  of 
his  family  usually  add  to  his  income  by  spinning  and  plait 
ing  straw. 

In  Southern  Tf.aly  fhp  divert fi^tioj]  °f  industry  is^  as 
yet,  scarcely  attempted  and  feeble  at  best.  Agriculture 
isj>ractically  the  sole  reliance  outside  of  the  noxious  sulphur  C^ 
mines  of  Sicily.  The  prevailing  system  of  operation  of 
the  land  is  of  large  estates  cultivated  by  hired  labor,  jf-f  J 
These  properties  are  usually  minutely  subdivided  and  sub 
let.  In  the  greater  part  of  this  region  wheat  is  almost 
the  only  product.  Eent  and  taxation  are  very  burdensome. 
Resort  to  modern  improvements  is  very  rarely  undertaken 
by  landlords.  The  lot  of  both  regular  and  irregular  day 
laborers  is  miserable,  and  is  often  rendered  appalling  by 
the  failure  of  the  prevailing  wheat  crop  or  by  the  ravages  of 
insects,  disease  or  blight  in  the  vineyards  and  olive  groves. 

Under  such  conditions  no  rapid  advance  can  be  looked 
for.  Yet,  despite  all  drawbacks,  agriculture  throughout 
Italy  has  been  making  certain  progress.  The  use  of  arti 
ficial  fertilizers  is  increasing.  Variation  and  rotation  of 
crops  are  extending.  The  export  of  agricultural  products 
is  advancing,  though  the  temporary  shock  to  the  agri- 
cutural  industry  through  the  enactment  of  French  protec 
tive  tariffs  was  greatly  depressing. 

31 


The  Italian  in  America 

Nearly  two  million  acres  of  malarious  marsh  lands  have 
been  cleared  and  rendered  productive.  An  annual ' i Arbor 
Day  "  has  been  instituted,  and  the  government  is  moving 
vigorously  for  the  protection  and  increase  of  the  forests 
maintaining  the  essential  water  supplies.  For  the  pres 
ervation  of  the  vineyards  from  the  ravages  of  the  phyl 
loxera,  grafting  from  the  immune  grape  stocks  of  Cali 
fornia  is  now  largely  prosecuted.  Thus  drought  and  dis 
ease  are  now  intelligently  combated,  and  relief  has  even 
been  obtained  from  the  scourge  of  hail,  so  often  destructive 
to  the  crops  of  Northern  Italy,  by  prodigious  discharges 
of  pyrite  powder,  converting  the  freezing  drops  to  fine 
snow  or  sleet. 

The  remarkable  advance  of  all  manufacturing  industries 
in  Northern  Italy  is  moreover  enriching  and  stimulating 
to  the  kingdom  as  a  whole.  It  is  expanding  the  home 
market  for  agricultural  produce  and  promoting  its  diver 
sification.  The  range  of  manufacturing  establishments 
is  also  further  progressing  down  the  peninsula  into  Central 
and  even  Southern  Italy.  In  the  past  eighteen  years  the 
silk  production  of  the  kingdom  has  doubled  and  the  weav 
ing  is  now  done  at  home  instead  of  abroad.  The  cotton 
industry  has  advanced  still  more  remarkably,  expanding 
more  than  six  fold  in  the  last  thirty  years.  Woollen  man 
ufactures  are  also  profitably  progressing,  and  surprising 
attainments  have  been  reached  in  the  development  of  iron 
and  steel  industries  and  the  extension  of  electric  plants  of 

32 


CAY.    A.    SBAPxBORO 
A  Founder  of  the  Italian- Swiss  Colony,  Asti.  California 


The  Inheritance  and  Progress  of  United  Italy 

all  kinds.  For  the  production  and  application  of  the  new 
world's  force,  electricity,  the  available  water  powers  of 
Italian  risers  have  already  done  much  to  oifset  the  lack 
of  coal  fields.  ]S"o  line  of  development  is  more  congenial 
to  Italian  genius  or  commands  more  ready  public  appre 
ciation. 

Italy  was  among  the  first  in  Europe  to  undertake  the 
construction  and  operation  of  electric  railways.  The 
Lugano  line  was  operated  with  electrical  equipment  over 
part  of  its  route  as  early  as  1890.  Now  two  other  roads, 
the  Lecco  railway  and  the  Varese  railway,  use  electricity 
for  their  regular  service,  and  other  electric  lines  are  in 
course  of  construction.  The  application  to  the  movement 
of  heavy  traffic  is  particularly  favored,  and  it  is  reason 
able  to  expect  progressive  advances  along  this  line  of 
transportation. 

Decadent  shipbuilding  is  now  again  actively  prosecuted 
also.  The  steamers  operated  as  Italian  lines  have  more 
than  doubled  in  number  within  the  past  ten  years,  and 
all  the  vessels  for  these  lines  are  now  built  in  Italian  ports. 
Genoa  is  already  the  second  port  of  the  Mediterranean  in 
commercial  importance,  and  with  the  opening  of  the 
Simplon  Tunnel  it  is  likely  to -become  the  chief  port  and 
surpass  even  its  ancient  commercial  prestige. 

The  development  of  the  mineral  wealth  of  the  kingdom 
is  beginning  to  keep  pace  with  the  advances  of  its  manu 
factures  and  commerce.  Sardinia  and  Elba,  from  the 


The  Italian  in  America 

days  of  the  old  Eoman  Empire,  have  been  known  to  be 
rich  in  iron,  lead  and  zinc,  and  the  sulphur  mines  of 
Sicily  and  the  Romagna  have  been  worked  from  time 
immemorial.  The  province  of  Grosseto  has  large  deposits 
of  iron  ore  and  cinnabar,  and  the  known  occurrences  of 
copper,  manganese  and  antimony  in  various  parts  of  the 
country  point  to  the  practicability  of  extending  develop 
ments.  More  than  fifteen  hundred  mines  are  now  in 
active  operation,  tripling  the  number  reported  in  the  first 
census  after  the  unification  of  the  kingdom,  and  the  value 
of  their  annual  output  has  risen  to  over  $15,000,000. 

The  total  value  of  the  paid-up  capital  of  railways,  ship 
ping  companies,  commercial  and  manufacturing  estab 
lishments  in  the  year  1904  is  reckoned  to  be  approximately 
four  hundred  million  dollars,  showing  that  this  aggregate 
capital  has  doubled  since  the  unification  of  the  kingdom. 

The  standards  of  living  have  risen,  too,  throughout  the 
country;  wages  have  advanced  on  an  average,  at  least, 
one- third;  food  is  more  plentiful;  clothes  are  better,  and 
both  food  and  clothing  are  cheaper.  The  poverty  of  the 
people  has  not  been  a  measure  of  their  thrift,  but  of  their 
opportunities.  This  is  clearly  demonstrated  in  the  re 
markable  expansion  of  savings  banks,  and  the  so-called 
people's  or  small  shareholders'  banks.  The  first  savings 
bank  in  Italy  was  opened  in  1822,  but  it  is  only  within  the 
last  twenty  years  that  its  multiplication  was  largely  prac 
ticable.  In  1900  the  Italian  savings  banks,  including 

34 


The  Inheritance  and  Progress  of  United  Italy 

those  of  the  Post  Office,  numbered  over  five  thousand,— 
the  aggregate  deposits  were  roundly  four  hundred  million 
dollars,  and  the  annual  increase  of  late  years  has  been  over 
ten  million  dollars.  The  number  of  depositors  in  1900 
was  five  million,  three  hundred  thousand.  In  addition 
to  these  are  the  people's  banks,  loaning  money  at  low  rates 
of  interest  to  their  shareholders,  chiefly  small  business  and 
peasant  proprietors.  These  numbered  7200  in  1897.  and 
their  total  of  deposits  was  nearly  seventy -five  million 
dollars. 

Co-operative,  mutual  aid  and  insurance  societies  have 
also  multiplied  very  rapidly  in  the  past  two  decades,  and 
their  obvious  benefits  have  been  a  great  stimulus  to  the 
extension  of  like  societies  among  the  Italians  in  America, 
a  most  substantial  guarantee  against  the  burdening  of 
our  public  charitable  institutions.  General  education  has 
advanced  also  notably,  though  in  parts  of  the  kingdom  this 
is  still  regretably  backward.  Still  the  percentage  of  illit 
eracy  had  fallen  from  fifty-seven  per  cent,  in  1871  to 
thirty-seven  per  cent,  in  1896.  There  were  in  1900  over 
fifty  thousand  communal  and  nine  thousand  private 
schools. 

The  elementary  schools,  as  a  body,  are  as  yet  far  below 
a  satisfactory  standard ;  the  school  buildings  are  poor  and 
cramped,  and  the  teachers  ill  paid.  But  in  the  extension 
of  her  technical  and  industrial  schools  Italy  has  a  right 
to  take  pride.  More  than  twenty  years  ago  the  govern- 

35 


The  Italian  in  America 

ment  appointed  a  commission  to  study  educational  meth 
ods  in  detail.  The  commission  reported  that  a  broad  and 
liberal  support  of  industrial  education  on  the  part  of  the 
State  would  be  the  most  effective  means  of  advancing  the 
interests  of  the  country  and  raising  the  general  condition 
of  the  people.  It  has  lately  been  observed  by  United 
States  Commercial  Agent  Harris  that  there  is  perhaps  no 
country  in  the  world  to-day  which  has  more  extended 
home  industries  than  Italy,  and  in  the  preparation  of  the 
government  scheme  of  industrial  education  the  house  in 
dustries  were  particularly  considered.  The  silk  industry, 
the  manufacture  of  hemp  and  tow,  the  twisting  of  baskets 
and  braiding  of  straw  hats  furnish  employment  to  many 
thousands  of  people  in  their  own  homes,  and  by  the  pro 
motion  of  these  industries  Italy  has  succeeded  in  prevent 
ing  a  drift  of  population  from  the  rural  districts  to  the 
large  cities.  During  the  past  twenty  years  a  system  of 
industrial  schools  has  been  gradually  established,  which 
now  extends  all  over  the  country  until  every  village  which 
has  an  industry  of  any  kind  has  a  school  for  its  advance 
ment.  In  addition  to  these  schools,  advanced  industrial 
schools  have  been  established  to  give  special  training  to 
students  who  expect  to  associate  themselves  with  the  glass, 
iron  and  marble,  and  other  leading  industries,  and  a  cer 
tificate  or  diploma  from  one  of  these  schools  admits  an 
applicant  without  further  examination  to  the  technical  and 
classical  universities  of  Italy. 


The  Inheritance  and  Progress  of  United  Italy 

The  noted  increase  of  the  savings  bank  deposits  of  the 
kingdom  is  a  gratifying  proof  of  the  widening  distribution 
of  prosperity.  Yet  this  showing  is  only  a  fraction  of  the 
actual  increase,  as  the  poorer  Italians  are  accustomed  to 
hoard  their  savings  in  their  homes  like  the  French,  and 
their  appreciation  of  banks  is  not  yet  general.  The  work 
ing  capital  of  the  kingdom  has  become  materially  greater; 
the  amount  of  money  in  circulation  per  capita  has  in 
creased;  individual  holdings  in  land  and  personal  prop 
erty  have  been  advanced,  and  the  rising  ability  of  the 
nation  to  meet  its  obligations  is  shown  by  the  increase  of 
returns  without  any  increase  of  taxation  until  the  income 
of  the  kingdom  exceeds  its  expenditures. 

Thus  the  progress  of  United  Italy — painfully  toiling 
upwardjinder  her  inherited  burden  over  an  untried_and 
perplexing  path — has  been  truly  remarkable  and  full  of 
promise  for  her  future,  if.  the  patience  and  perseverance 
of  her  people,  in  the  solution  of  her  problems,  do  not  falter. 
Every  succeeding  year  brings  increased  strength  to  bear 
her  load,  if  it  does  not  actually  lighten  it.  "What  may  not 
a  people  attain,  of  whom  the  keen  observer  Emil  Reich 
bears  witness  in  his  discussion  of  "  The  Future  of  the  Latin 
Races"  in  the  Contemporary  Review?  "There  can  be 
little  doubt,"  he  says,  "that  they  are  the  most  gifted 
nation  in  Europe.  What  characterizes  them  above  all  is 
their  initiative.  It  is  the  first  step  which  is  t"be  hardest  to 
take,  but  it  is  the  Italians  who  hare  been  ready  to  take 

37 


The  Italian  in  America 

the  first  step  in  action,  and  able  to  take  the  first  step  in 
the  new  paths  of  science.  *  *  *  We  cannot  help  be 
ing  impressed  by  their  extraordinary  mental  activity  and 
by  the  diversity  of  their  attainments,  which  is  almost 
incredible." 

Certain  it  is  that  under  the  fortunate  leadership  of  a 
sovereign,  intelligent,  progressive  and  patriotic,  Italy  is 
steadily  exalting  her  rank  among  the  nations  of  Europe. 

ELIOT  LOKD. 


38 


CHAPTER  III 

THE    CAUSES   AND   REGULATION   OF    ITALIAN   EMIGRATION 

Forty  years  ago,  as  has  been  noted,  there  was  no  immi-  . 
gration  from  Italy  of  any  consequence,  and  the  suggestion 
would  have  been  generally  derided  that  any  serious  prob 
lem  of  immigration  was  likely  to  arise.  In  the  closing 
year  of  our  Civil  War  it  is  observed  in  the  "  Italian 
Journeys  "  of  Howells,  that  it  is  "  difficult  to  tempt  from 
home  any  of  the  homekeeping  Italian  race."  There  was 
then  no  perceptible  movement  of  emigration  anywhere, 
and  it  was  an  occasion  of  particular  note  by  him  that  the 
only  advertisement  for  the  opening  of  emigration  he  had 
ever  seen  in  Italy  was  the  bulletin  of  a  single  German  • 
steamship  company  in  the  inconsiderable  town  of  Colico. 

Luigi  Yillari  has  accounted  for  this  condition  by  the 
further  observation  of  a  widely  disseminated  prejudice 
against  emigration.  f(.  was  regarded  as  essentially  un 
patriotic  by  most  of  the  movers  of  public  opinion  for  an 
Italian  to  turn  his  back  even  temporarily  to  the  crying 
demands  of  his  own  country,  and  to  seek  relief  from  ffe 
burdens  in  foreign  lands.  Italian  writers,  in  fact,  as 

39 


The  Italian  in  America 

Yillari  notes,  "have  likened  emigration  to  suicide,  and 
every  Italian  who  left  his  own  country  was  regarded  as 
little  better  than  a  traitor."  4 

Thus  it  was,  probably,  that,  in  spite  of  the  distressful 
conditions  of  the  discordant  Italian  states,  the  movement 
of  emigration  was  so  inconsiderable  before  the  unifica 
tion  of  Italy  was  effected.  With  the  attainment  of  f  ree- 
dom  and  unity  a  controlling  appeal  to  patriotic  endurance 
lost  its  force.  There  was  further  a  more  general  and 
vivid  comprehension  of  the  widespread  opportunities  open 
to  emigrants  through  the  awakening  of  animation  and 
intelligence  and  hope  by  the  assured  deliverance  from  dis 
cord  andoppression/^  Hence  the  distressful  condition? 

ipelling  a  movement  of  emigration  began  to  operate 

ath  much  less  resl 

^*^-     _     t        — — • 

The  main  underlying  cause  then  inciting  emigration 
was  the  pressure  of  population  upon  the  means  of  subsist 
ence.  In  spite  of  despotic  oppression,  foreign  invasion 
and  internal  dissension,  the  population  of  Italy  at  the 
time  of  the  unification  was  nearly  double  what  it  was  at 
the  beginning  of  the  eighteenth  century.  The  census  of 
1881  showed  a  population  of  257  to  the  square  mile,  and 
thus  was  obviously  fast  advancing ;  for,  twenty  years  later, 
in  spite  of  the  great  efflux,  the  population  had  increased  to 
32,475,253,  or  294  to  the  square  mile. 

There  was  no  diversification  or  development  of  industry 

40 


The  Causes  and  Regulation  of  Italian  Emigration 

throughout  the  greater  part  of  the  kingdom  to  keep  pace 
with  this  increase.  Except  in  the  Northern  Provinces 
there  was  practically  no  industry  deserving  the  name  out 
side  of  agriculture,  and  that  pursued  in  a  fashion  little 
changed  since  the  days  of  the  Medici.  Less  than  fifty 
years  ago  there  was  not  a  railroad  in  Sicily,  and  in  all  the 
Neapolitan  provinces  the  total  length  of  railways  was  a 
scant  one  hundred  and  fourteen  miles.  Tuscany  had  only 
284  miles  of  railway  at  the  opening  of  the  year  1860 ;  Lom- 
bardy,  100  miles  less;  and  even  in  the  comparatively 
thriving  provinces  of  Piedmont  and  Liguria  the  extent  of 
railways  was  then  only  744  miles.  Postal  telegraph  serv 
ice  was  equally  backward,  and  in  Lower  Italy  there  was 
not  even  a  current  of  trade. 

Moreover,  the  monopoly  of  the  land  in  the  hands  of 
aristocratic  proprietors  was  a  discouraging  obstacle  to  the 
advancement  of  the  condition  of  the  people  in  the  agricul- 
tural  districts  by  a  distribution  of  the  land  among  the 
peasant  proprietary.  Even  when  small  holdings  were 
secured  independently  in  exceptional  cases,  they  could 
hardly  be  maintained  under  a  burden  of  taxation  from 
which  the  poorest  landholder  could  obtain  no  relief. 
There  was  no  exemption  for  any  kind  of  real  estate,  and 
the  weight  of  taxation,  even  after  the  reconstruction  of 
Italy,  continued  to  fall  disproportionately  on  the  agricul 
tural  sections,  i  Thus  Prof.  Panteleone  observed  in  the 
Giornale  degli  Economisti  in  1891  that  Northern  Italy, 

41 


The  Italian  in  'America 

with  48  per  cent,  of  the  national  wealth,  was  paying  40 
per  cent,  of  the  taxation;  central  Italy,  with  25  per  cent., 
was  paying  28  per  cent.,  and  Southern  Italy,  with  not 
over  27  per  cent.,  was  paying  32  per  cent,  of  the  taxa 
tion.  This  was  in  face  of  the  fact,  too,  that  the  rupture 
of  the  commercial  treaty  with  France  had  very  greatly 
stimulated  the  manufacturing  interests  in  Piedmont  and 
Lombardy,  while  the  agricultural  provinces  had  lost  their 
chief  market  in  France,  and  were  burdened  additionally 
by  the  increase  in  price  of  the  manufactured  goods  which 
they  had  to  purchase. 

Moreover,  the  taxes  were  so  assessed  that  the  small  land 
holder  often  feared  to  improve  his  estate  lest  the  tax  should 
be  raised  exorbitantly.  The  so-called  family  tax,  imposed 
by  the  communes,  was  particularly  obnoxious  from  the 
inquisition  of  its  conduct  and  its  varying  with  localities 
and  individual  official  judgment,  certainly  unequal  and 
often  corrupt  or  unfair.  No  form  of  taxation  is  more 
irritating  than  one  that  pries  into  a  household  through 
official  inspectors,  counting  rooms,  examining  furniture 
and  carpets,  then  going  through  the  stable  and  farmyard 
and  making  a  tally  and  valuation  of  the  live  stock  of  every 
description  without  passing  over  even  a  few  clucking 
hens,  embracing  the  harness  and  tools  and  equipment  of 
every  description,  and  then  checking  up  the  returns  by 
cross-questioning  servants  and  neighbors.  In  many  com 
munes  of  Southern  Italy,  too,  as  Villari  states,  the  dis- 

42 


The  Causes  and  Regulation  of  Italian  Emigration 

crimination  appears  to  be  peculiarly  grinding,  as  the 
landlord's  saddle  horse  is  exempt,  while  a  tax  is  assessed 
on  the  peasant's  donkey. 

The  milling  monopoly  and  the  government  monopolies 
of  salt  and  tobacco  have  been  particularly  irksome  also  to 
the  poor  man,  and  his  resentment  is  embittered  by  the 
daily  parade  of  armed  guards  patroling  the  coast  to  pre 
vent  people  from  stealing  sea  water  in  buckets  to  obtain 
the  salt.  There  is  an  attempted  relief  from  the  aggrava 
tion  of  these  burdens  through  the  protectionist  policy 
strictly  adhered  to  by  the  government  of  United  Italy, 
yet  the  heavy  duties  on  the  large  quantities  of  foodstuffs, 
which  are  necessarily  imported  to  supply  the  demands  of 
the  people,  have  made  even  this  protection  largely  a  bur 
den  whose  weight  is  the  most  grievous  to  those  least  able 
to  bear  it. 

Since  the  unification  of  Italy  the  national  administration 
has  unquestionably  been  making  truly  patriotic  efforts  to 
deal  adequately  with  existing  conditions  and  provide 
methods  of  relief,  but  it  has  confessedly  been  laboring  un 
der  a  perplexing  strain.  Relief  from  the  dragweight  of 
taxation  was  seemingly  essential  to  a  hopeful  advance  in 
Central  and  Southern  Italy,  at  least;  but,  in  spite  of  the 
intelligently  liberal  policy  of  the  Ministry,  adequate  relief 
has  not  yet  been  effected.  This  is  largely  owing  to  what  is 
esteemed  the  necessity  of  maintaining  military  armaments 
on  land  and  sea  rivalling  the  establishments  of  the  greater 

43 


The  Italian  mx America 

nations  of  Europe.  To  this  drain  has  been  coupled  the 
extraordinary  expenses  entailed  by  a  progressive  policy 
of  internal  development  which,  in  part,  has  been  charged 
with  extravagance  and  misjudgment.  These  develop 
ments  necessarily  overran  for  the  time  the  immediate 
returns  of  income,  so  that  both  the  military  and  civil 
policy  have  made  the  taxation  of  the  kingdom  exceedingly 
burdensome. 

A  leading  historian  of  Italy,  Pasquale  Villari,  gloomily 
observes  in  his  discussion  of  "Present  Day  Problems  in 

[taly,"  in  Nuova  Antologia  of  1899,  that  in  proportion 
to  the  wealth  of  the  kingdom  it  is  the  most  heavily  taxed 
and  deeply  indebted  country  of  Europe.  In  wealth,  he 

totes,  Italy  has  not  a  quarter  part  of  the  possessions  of 
France,  but  contributes  about  half  as  much  to  the  ex 
penses  of  the  State.  It  pays  more  than  a  million  francs 
daily  as  interest  on  its  funded  debt  alone.  Its  annual  rev 
enue  is  1,600,000,000  lire.  Half  of  this  is  swallowed  up 
by  interest  on  debts  of  various  kinds,  including  the  pen 
sion  list.  Adding  160,000,000  lire  devoted  to  the  collec 
tion  of  revenue,  there  remains  but  little  more  than  600,- 
000,000  lire  for  all  national  expenses,  including  the  army, 
navy,  public  works,  prisons,  police  and  general  adminis 
tration.  Existing  taxes  he  considers  to  be  inadequate, 
burdensome  and  antiquated.  Objects  of  luxury  pay  next 
to  nothing,  and  almost  all  necessities  of  life  are  heavily 
taxed.  The  poor  man  pays  fifty  per  cent,  of  the  sum 

44 


The  Causes  and  Regulation  of  Italian  Emigration 

lt\.  by  government.  New  debts,  he  concludes,  "are 
impossible;  new  taxes,  only  more  so;  economy  is  our 
only  resource." 

In  opposition  to  this  view  must  justly  be  ranged  the 
more  hopeful  outlook  ably  presented  by  Dr.  G.  Tosti  in 
the  American  Journal  of  Sociology  (Vol.  VIII,  No.  1), 
1902,  under  the  caption  "The  Financial  and  Industrial 
Outlook  of  Italy."  This  competent  examiner  points  out 
that  despite  impressions  to  the  contrary,  Italian  financial 
policies  have  been  so  ably  planned  and  handled  that  there 
has  been  a  continuous  rise  in  the  value  of  Italian  State 
bonds  on  foreign  markets,  and  a  constant  diminution  in 
the  rate  of  exchange.  Moreover,  as  observed  by  Mr.  Gino 
C.  Speranza  in  his  contribution  to  the  issue  of  Chari 
ties  (May  7th,  1904),  United  Italy  has  never  admitted 
the  possibility  of  bankruptcy,  never  paid  her  national  debt 
in  paper  in  spite  of  the  "  tremendous  demands  made  upon 
her  youth. ' '  Her  industrial  and  social  progress  since  uni 
fication,  in  spite  of  all  handicaps,  is  undeniable,  too,  as 
detailed  in  the  preceding  chapter.  There  has  been  an 
influx  of  capital,  even  in  the  most  depressed  regions,  of 
very  material  consequence  through  the  contributions  of 
emigrants,  and  the  demand  for  labor  at  home,  its  wages 
and  the  openings  for  employment  have  assuredly  ad 
vanced.  In  the  important  measure  of  progress  afforded 
by  the  rate  of  wages  alone,  improvement  is  beyond  dis 
pute,  and  Adolfo  Rossi  particularly  credits  as  a 

45 


The  Italian  in  America 


effect  of  emigration  the  increase  of  wages  all  over  Italy 
fropT  one-JThirdJx)  one-flait. 

In  his  expert  discussion  of  the  effect  of  emigration 
on  Italy  in  Charities  (May  7th,  1904),  Signor  Rossi 
further  emphasizes  the  marked  difference  in  recent  years 
\in  the  causes  of  emigration  from  Italy.  "It  is  not  hard 
conditions,11  lie  observes,  lior  starvationVthat  now  sends 
Italians  to  America;  thej^comebecause  they  are  eager  for 
more^money.  A  mason  earmng^Iireaday  in  Southern 
Italy  can  live  there  comfortably,  but  he  has  heard  that  he 
can  earn  6  a  day  in  America  ";  so  he  emigrates,  and  the 
emigration  has  swelled  so  rapidly  that  the  available  labor 
supply  has  greatly  diminished,  and  there  is  now  a  keen 
competition  in  parts  of  Italy  for  laborers  with  the  inevi 
table  increase  of  wages. 

In  spite  of  this  advance  and  its  tendency  to  check  emi 
gration,  local  conditions  may  operate  to  stimulate  it 
temporarily.  This  was  particularly  so  during  the  last 
year  (1904)  and  the  year  preceding,  whe^^e^agri^alt 
industrv  was  depressed  by  crop  failures,  the  ravages  of 

— L  ^"-1*>     — -y_  ^-— "-      —  ,,-•_-_  ~ ^  ^\j  -"1 

LJ^erjhjUoxej^^ 

Early  in  1903  it  was  reportecfthat  908  provinces  in  Italy 
had  been  invaded  by  the  phylloxera,  and  that  not  less  than 
750,000  acres  of  vineland  had  been  entirely  destroyed. 
This  insect  entered  Italy  first  in  1879,  nine  years  after  its 
appearance  in  France,  and  the  extent  of  its  devastation  is 
attributed  to  the  fact  that  it  has  not  been  repressed  as 

46 


The  Causes  and  Regulation  of  Italian  Emigration 

effectively  by  the  introduction  of  American  grafts.  When 
the  insect  stings  an  American  vine  or  one  protected  by 
grafting,  the  opening  immediately  fills  with  sap  and  closes 
leaving  no  wound.  Hence  it  is  now  deemed  essential  to 
protection  against  this  insect  in  Europe  that  the_vine  shall 
be  Americanized,  and  the  Calif  orniagrafts  are  generally 
preferred. 

The  citrus  fruit  plantations  have  been  suffering  from 
the  depression  for  which  there  is  no  immediate  prospect 
of  relief.  It  was  reported  last  year  by  Alexander  Hein- 
gartner,  U.  S.  Consul  at  Catania,  that  lemons  were  hard 
to  market  at  3  lire  (58  cents)  per  thousand  on  the  trees, 
which  only  a  few  seasons  ago  commanded  15  lire  ($2.90) 
per  thousand.  Through  immense  mass  meetings,  the 
government  had  been  importuned  to  obtain  favorable 
treatment  of  citrus  products  in  new  commercial  conven 
tions  and  to  obtain,  if  practicable,  better  tariff  rates  from 
the  United  States  and  Kussia.  New  and  modern  lines  of 
navigation,  especially  to  Australia,  were  requested,  and 
lower  freight  rates  by  sea  and  rail.  There  was  also  an 
insistent  pressure  for  the  abolition  of  the  present  octroi 
tax  on  fruit. 

The  province  of  Piedmont  is  the  most  productive  cocoon 
section  of  the  kingdom,  but  the  crop  for  1903  was  only 
about  one-third  of  the  average,  owing  to  the  late  frost 
which  kept  the  mulberry  trees  almost  leafless.  In  de 
fault  of  the  natural  food  of  the  silkworm,  other  expedients 

47 


The  Italian  in  America 

were  tried  to  keep  the  worms  alive,  but  none  succeeded,  so 
that  the  disaster  was  very  grievous,  as  the  Consul  at  Turin 
reported  in  July,  1903.  The  failure  of  this  crop,  and  the 
injury  of  the  wheat,  grape  and  other  crops  of  the  province 
by  the  frost  and  prolonged  rain  were  so  discouraging  to 
the  peasants  that  a  great  increase  in  the  emigration  from 
this  province  was  anticipated  during  1904. 

It  is  of  interest  to  note  that  in  spite  of  these  inciting 
causes  the  emigration  from  Italy  to  this  country  not 
only  did  not  increase,  as  compared  with  the  showing  of 
the  year  ending  June  30,  1903,  but  on  the  other  hand,  a 
marked  diminution  is  noted,  as  well  as  an  unprecedented 
return  of  emigrants  to  Italy. 

ITALIAN   REGULATION   OF   EMIGRATION 

It  is  of  no  practical  concern  to  inquire  into  the  grounds 
of  complaint  of  the  insufficiency  of  the  emigration  laws 
and  the  laxity  of  their  enforcement  when  Italy  was  a  med 
ley  of  discordant  and  largely  misgoverned  states.  It  is 
immaterial,  too,  whether  any  deficiencies  existed  in  the 
^formative  years  immediately  following  the  unification  of 
the  present  kingdom.  /  frf  ¥  /  /  *  «*  4>e*jF;) 

From  the  year  1888,  which  practica  11  y  -rpa.rks  the 
beginning  f^  *>»Q  rfw^^^p  flow  rf  immi^rnfmi  to  this 
country,  examination  shows  that  no  nation  of  Europe  has 
been  more  circumspect  in  its  provisions  for  regulating  and 
safeguarding  its  emigration  and  colonization. 

48 


PICKING'  BLACK    PRINCE    CRAPES 
Product  of  Italian  Cultivation.  San  Joaquin  Valley, 
California 


The  Causes  and  Regulation  of  Italian  Emigration 

£/to/h  ffS&rJfr*     JZtff'S'  /  ^X  So  4  r 

The  law  passed  by  the  Italian  parliament  and  approved   > 

by  the  king  on  the  31st  of  December,  1888,  was  carefully 
considered  and  designed  to  assure  in  every  detail,  the  judi 
cious  oversight  and  control  of  emigration.  Its  specifi 
cations  were  supplemented  by  special  instructions  and  de 
partmental  regulations  assuring  the  administration  and 
enforcement  of  the  law  with  certainty  and  efficiency. 

Emigration  from  the  kingdom  was  declared  to  be  free, 
subject  only  to  the  specific  obligations  imposed  upon  citi 
zens  by  the  law  of  the  State  and  the  restrictive  laws  of 
foreign  countries.  To  provide-against  the  unrestricted 
depletion  of  the  number  of  male  citizens  available  for  the 
defence  of  the  State,  military  of  the  first  and  second  cate 
gories  on  indefinite  leave,  belonging  to  the  regular  army 
or  to  the  movable  militia,  were  prohibited  from  emigra 
tion  without  the  permission  of  the  Minister  of  War. 

No  one,  without  violation  of  law,  could  collect  emi 
grants,  sell  or  distribute  tickets  for  emigration,  or  pro 
cure  or  assist  their  embarkation,  unless  formally  com 
missioned  by  the  Minister  of  the  Interior  as  Emigration 
Agent,  or  licensed  by  the  Prefect  of  a  province,  as  sub- 
agent. 

To  obtain  the  commission  of  Emigration  Agent,  the 
applicant  must  be  at  least  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  a 
resident  citizen  of  Italy;  he  must  not  have  lost  his  civil 
rights,  nor  be  under  surveillance  in  the  interest  of  public 
security,  nor  have  been  condemned  for  any  crime  against 

49 


The  Italian  in  America 

the  good  faith  of  the  public,  nor  in  relation  to  trade  or 
commerce,  or  good  custom,  nor  against  persons  or  prop 
erty,  nor  for  infractions  of  the  emigration  law  or  regu 
lations.  An  agent  receiving  a  commission  was  required 
to  deposit  from  3,000  to  5,000  lire  in  bonds  of  the  State  as 
security  for  his  observance  of  the  law  and  regulations,  and 
any  claims  on  behalf  of  an  emigrant  for  which  he  might 
become  liable. 

A  duly  commissioned  agent  was  authorized  to  appoint 
sub-agents  in  accordance  with  the  law,  but  no  sub-agent 
could  act  without  obtaining  a  special  license  from  the 
Prefect  of  the  province  in  which  the  agent  was  stationed, 
and  any  further  delegation  of  powers  to  assist  emigration 
was  prohibited.  No  agent  or  sub-agent  could  promote, 
in  any  way,  the  collection  of  emigrants  outside  of  the 
district  in  which  he  was  authorized  to  act,  and  it  was 
expressly  provided  that  it  should  not  devolve  upon  the 
emigrant  to  pay  the  agent  or  sub-agent  for  any  services 
whatever,  except  to  reimburse  them  for  the  actual  sums 
expended  on  his  account. 

For  determining  identity  and  compliance  with  the  regu 
lation  and  prohibitions  of  the  law,  a  contract  in  triplicate 
must  be  made  in  every  case  between  the  agent,  sub-agent 
and  emigrant,  or,  if  the  latter  was  a  minor,  his  guardian. 
One  copy  of  this  contract  must  be  given  to  -the  emigrant 
and  one  to  the  captain  of  the  port,  the  agent  retaining  the 
third.  If  any  emigrant  should  be  unable  to  write  his 

50 


The  Causes  and  Regulation  of  Italian  Emigration 

name,  this  contract  must  be  signed  by  the  mayor  or  by 
an  authority  of  public  security. 

This  contract  must  specify  the  name,  age,  profession 
and  last  residence  of  the  emigrant. 

The  date  of  his  discharge  from  the  army  or  the  permis 
sion  of  the  Minister  of  War. 

The  place  of  departure  and  the  place  or  port  of  desti 
nation. 

The  time  of  departure. 

The  name  of  the  transporting  vessel  and  the  post  as 
signed  to  the  emigrant,  with  the  express  prescription  of 
the  space  assigned  to  him  in  conformity  with  the  regula 
tion  of  the  law  of  1879. 

The  period  of  stoppage  at  intermediate  ports,  when  the 
voyage  was  not  made  directly,  and  in  case  of  change,  the 
name  and  character  of  the  new  vessel. 

The  total  or  partial  price  of  the  expenses  of  subsistence 
on  board,  with  the  proviso  that  this  stipulation  must  in 
no  case  be  inferior  to  the  ration  established  by  the  law 
of  1879. 

The  quantity  of  baggage  which  the  emigrant  was 
allowed  to  take  with  him. 

Explicit  provision  was  made  in  the  law  to  protect  the 
emigrant  from  any  imposition  or  abuse  on  the  part  of 
any  concerned  in  his  passage  to  any  foreign  country ;  and 
any  agent,  owner,  captain,  master  or  charterer  of  trans 
porting  vessels  were  subject  to  a  penalty,  both  of  fine  and 

51 


e  Italian  in  America 


imprisonment,  for  receiving  emigrants  on   board  with 
out  the  contract  and  permit  above  noted. 

Any  infraction  of  the  main  regulations  of  the  law  by  / 
the  agent  or  sub-agent  of  emigration   was  punishable 
with  a  like  penalty. 

For  further  security  the  regulations  for  the  executioi 
of  this  law  constrained  the  procurement  of  the  vise  of  th 
police  authorities  of  the  port  of  embarkation  in  order  t< 
make  the  contract  valid  as  a  passport  for  emigration,  an( 
these  authorities  were  instructed  to  limit  the  passports  ir 
every  case  to  the  regulated  capacity  of  the  transporting 
vessel. 

Agents  were  expressly  prohibited,  also,  from  furnishing 
passage  to  persons  who  were  not  allowed  to  enter  the 
foreign  country  to  which  they  proposed  to  go,  and  wei 
bound  to  conform  to  all  rules  laid  down  by  the  Ministy 
for  the  protection  of  emigrants,  auxiliary  to  the  re< 
lations  adopted  by  the  governments  of  foreign  counties 
receiving 


Lirect 


and  control,  asiar  as  practicable,  the  flow 
emigration,  correspondence  was  opened  by  special  ar 
rangement  between  the  Ministry  of  the  Interior  and  the 
Italian  consular  service.  The  consuls  were  called  upon 
to  re-examine  carefully  the  basis  of  their  former  reports 
on  immigration  to  the  Ministry  of  Foreign  Affairs,  and 
to  forward  as  complete  additional  information  as  possible, 
>vering: 


The  Causes  and  Regulation  of  Italian  Emigration 

The  physical,  hygienic  and  agricultural  conditions 
of  the  districts  in  which  they  were  stationed,  and  all  other 
conditions  having  relation  to  colonization  and  population. 

2.  The  number  of  Italian  immigrants  already  located 
in  each  district. 

3.  The  industries,  trades  and  occupations  in  which  the 
immigrants  were  generally  engaged. 

4.  The  laws  enacted  concerning  these  immigrants  and 
the  relations  sustained  by  them  to  the  authorities,  land 
holders  and  contractors. 

5.  The  pay  which  they  receive  and  the  prices  of  pro 
visions. 

6.  Whether  the  means  of  communication  were  good 
and  whether  there  were  good  markets  in  the  neighborhood 
for  the  sale  of  their  productions. 

7.  Whether  there  were  any  immigration  companies  or 
any  such  in  course  of  formation. 

8.  Whether  land  was  granted  to  immigrants  desiring 
to  found  a  colony  on  it,  and  if  so,  on  what  terms;  also 
whether  land  was  sold  to  immigrants  on  easy  terms,  and 
if  so,  on  what  terms. 

9.  Whether  the  immigrants  when  they  desired  to  re 
turn  home  met  with  obstacles  in  communication  with  the 
seaboard,  or  in  their  immigration  or  labor  contract,  or 
in  the  local  laws  and  ordinances. 

In  this  requisition  from  the  Minister  of  the  Interior, 
consuls  were  enjoined  to  send  in  regularly,  twice  a  year 

53 


The  Italian  in  America 

thereafter,  reports  covering  all  these  matters  of  inquiry 
and  detailing  any  changes  of  note  occurring  in  the  con 
ditions  affecting  immigration.  They  were  particularly 
requested  to  give  clear  and  accurate  statements  of  the  con 
dition  of  immigrants,  whether  good  or  bad,  without  con 
cealing  anything  out  of  regard  to  foreign  governments. 
In  the  use  or  publication  of  the  information  received  in 
the  interest  of  the  public,  the  Ministry  undertook  to  main 
tain  the  greatest  reserve  compatible  with  the  best  interests 
of  immigrants  to  avoid  disclosure  of  its  sources  of  infor 
mation. 

Twelve  years  later,  after  the  provisions  of  this  la,w  hftd 
been  thoroughly  tested,  supplementary  legislation  was 
enacted  in  the  passage  of  the  law  of  January  31,  1901. 
The  design  of  this  law  was  to  remedy  any  defects  noted 
in  the  operation  of  existing  legislation,  to  institute  the 
best  feasible  safeguards  for  the  protection  and  guidance 
of  emigrants,  and  especially  to  suppress  any  artificial 
promotion  of  emigration. 

As  an  effective  instrument  of  its  purpose,  it  created  a 
Government  Board  of  Emigration  by  the  institution  of 
the  Koyal  Emigration.  Department  of  Italy.  This  con 
sists  of  a  Commissariat  and  Council.  The  Commissariat  is 
composed  of  a  Commissioner-General  and  three  Associate 
Commissioners,  with  a  suitable  provision  of  executive 
clerks.  In  co-operative  and  advisory  association  a  council 
or  Board  of  Emigration  was  established,  consisting  of 

54 


The  Causes  and  Regulation  of  Italian  Emigration 

the  Commissioner- General;  five  delegates,  representing 
the  Departments  of  the  Interior,  Treasury,  Navy,  Public 
Instruction  and  Agriculture;  three  members  appointed 
by  royal  decree  from  such  persons  as  shall  have  made  the 
science  of  geography,  statistics  and  economy  their  special 
study;  and  two  additional  members — one  nominated  by 
the  National  League  of  Italian  Co-operative  Societies,  and 
the  other  by  leading  Mutual  Aid  Societies  of  the  chief 
towns  of  the  kingdom. 

The  headquarters  of  this  department  were  established 
at  Rome  with  three  main  branches  at  Genoa,  Naples  and 
Palermo.  In  every  municipality  there  is  also  an  Advisory 
Committee,  under  the  law,  composed  of  the  Syndic,  the 
local  justice,  a  physician,  a  representative  of  the  clergy, 
and  one  of  a  trades  organization  or  agricultural  society. 
The  duty  of  each  committee  is  to  advise  and  protect 
emigrants.  The  central  body  issues  a  special  bulletin  and 
circulars  of  instruction  to  these  local  committees.  The 
bulletin  and  circulars  contain  the  information  sent  in  by 
the  consuls  abroad  and  by  the  Travelling  Emigration  In 
spectors  regarding  emigration  matters. 

In  a  communication  formally  addressed  by  Adolfo 
Kossi,  Visiting  Inspector  of  this  department,  in  the  spring 
of  1904,  to  the^  President  of  the  American  Society  for  the 
Protection  of  Italian  Immigrants,  the  purpose  and  opera 
tion  of  this  amended  Italian  emigration  legislation  and 
its  conduct  under  the  supervision  of  the  Royal  Emigration 

55 


The  Italian  in  America 

Department  are  defined  with  the  weight  of  official  author 
ity.  While  the  law  of  1901,  as  Signor  Rossi  notes,  does 
not  question  the  right  of  expatriation  and  emigration, 
it  hedges  this  right  around  with  such  special  safeguards 
"  that  it  may  well  be  called  a  restrictive  law."  Accord 
ing  to  the  intelligent  view  of  Senator  I3odio,  the  head  of 
the  Royal  Emigration  Department,  as  reported  by  Signer 
Rossi,  "  Legislatures  and  governments  can  neither  create 
nor  direct  migratory  currents,  but  only  discipline.  These 
are  like  the  great  marine  currents  which  go  to  warm  and 
improve  distant  lands,  flowing  in  one  direction  until  some 
natural  change  turns  their  flow  elsewhere." 

The  main  provisions  of  this  discipline  of  regulation  arc 
tli us  summarized  by  Signor  Rossi: 

First.   It.  prohibits  all  steamship  lines  from  using  any 

i<:Uiods  of  publicity  calculated  to  encourage  emigration. 
Whoever  advertises  by  circulars,  handbills,  or  other  no 
tices,  matters  tending  to  encourage  emigration,  or  dis 
tributes  the  same,  is  subject  to  a  heavy  fine  and  imprison- 

icnt." 

"  Secondly.  No  steamer  carrying  immigrants  can  be 
enrolled  as  an  emigrant  ship  under  the  law  unless  a 
Special  Commission  of  Examiners  issues  a  permit.  Such 
permit  can  only  be  granted  when  the  steamship  company 
has  complied  with  all  the  regulations  fixed  by  the  law 
regarding  hygiene,  safety,  speed,  and  the  allotment  of 
proper  space  for  berths.  Even  the  quality  and  quantity 

56 


The  Causes  and  Regulation  of  Italian  Emigration 

of  food  is  fixed  by  the  law.  Furthermore,  no  steamer 
can  sail  without  undergoing  two  examinations,  medical 
and  administrative,  to  ascertain  whether  every  provision 
of  the  law  has  been  complied  with." 

"At  the  ports  of  Genoa,  Naples  and  Palermo  our  officers 
inspect  all  lodging  houses  and  immigrant  hotels  to  see 
that  the  hygienic  rules  are  obeyed,  and  that  the  law  is 
obeyed  regarding  rates,  food  and  lodging,  which  expenses 
for  the  two  days  preceding  departure  are  payable  by  the 
steamship  companies.  Special  officers  meet  the  immi 
grants  at  the  various  railroad  stations  at  the  ports  of 
departure,  and  escort  them  to  the  piers  or  lodging  houses." 

"  Thirdly.  Every  steamship  company  must  pay  the 
expenses  and  salary  of  a  Government  Commissioner  (gen 
erally  a  surgeon  of  the  royal  navy),  who  sails  with  each 
boat  carrying  immigrants,  and  whose  duty  is  to  look  after 
hygienic  conditions  and  the  observance  of  the  immigra 
tion  law." 

,  cc  Fourthly.  No  navigation  company  is  allowed  to  sell 
tickets  in  Italy  without  previously  filing  a  bond  with  the 
State,  conditioned  upon  the  compliance  of  the  law." 

"  There  is  furthermore  a  tax  of  8  f.  which  the  steamship 
companies  must  pay  on  each  ticket  sold.  All  such  taxes 
constitute  a  fund  to  be  used  exclusively  for  the  benefit  of 
immigrants.  We  see,  therefore,  that  the  law  has  imposed 
many  burdens  and  expenses  upon  the  navigation  com 
panies.  To  prevent  too  great  an  increase  in  ticket  rates, 

57 


The  Italian  in  America 

or  the  formation  of  pooling  agreements,  it  is  provided 
that  the  Immigration  Department  shall  fix  the  maximum 
of  transportation  rates  every  four  months." 

"The  law  also  gives  the  right  to  the  government  to 
suspend  immigration  to  any  given  country  when  special 
circumstances  to  the  detriment  of  the  immigrant  arise. 
For  example,  two  years  ago,  when  it  was  ascertained  that 
on  account  of  the  crisis  in  coffee  plantations,  the  condition 
of  Italian  immigrants  in  San  Paulo,  Brazil,  was  critical, 
the  government  withdrew  the  permission  given  to  Brazil 
for  the  free  importation  of  Italians  to  the  farms  and  plan 
tations  in  that  country.  The  law  also  provides  special 
regulations  regarding  children  and  women,  such  as  the 
prohibition  of  sending  minors  out  of  the  country  except 
under  certain  circumstances,  etc." 

"  In  three  years'  existence  the  department  has  not  en 
couraged  immigration  toward  any  definite  place.  Indeed 
it  has  often  been  objected  that  the  Immigration  Depart 
ment  discourages  immigrants  from  going  to  this  and  that 
country  for  this  or  that  reason,  and  does  not  point  out 
where  they  can  go.  If  all  immigrants  were  to  follow  its 
advice,  they  would  all  stay  at  home.  There  could  be  no 
higher  definition  of  the  policy  of  the  department  than 
this — which  indeed  proves  that  it  is  not  an  employment 
agency,  but  an  institution  seeking  to  prevent  forced  or 
artificial  immigration,  and  to  protect  the  immigrants  from 
those  who  exploit  them." 

58 


The  Causes  and  Regulation  of  Italian  Emigration 

' '  When  foreign  governments  or  foreign  contractors 
send  us  requests  for  Italian  laborers,  our  Immigration 
Department  refuses  such  request  unless  the  wages  offered 
are  equal  to  the  prevailing  rate  of  wages  of  the  demanding 
government  or  its  contractors  for  such  laborers.  Our 
department  is  opposed  to  the  use  of  Italian  labor  as  a 
method  of  reducing  prevailing  rates  abroad.  Here  are 
two  examples:  In  1902  the  government  of  Cape  Colony 
asked  permission  to  import  500  Italian  peasant  families, 
offering  2  l/2s.  a  day  wages,  besides  house,  ground  and 
wood. ' ' 

"  Such  request  was  refused  because  I  reported  as  the 
result  of  an  investigation  in  Cape  Colony  that  white  farm 
laborers  there  earned  more  than  the  amount  offered. 
Again  in  January,  1903,  some  mining  companies  of  Jo 
hannesburg  (Transvaal)  asked  for  1,000  Italian  miners  at 
6s.  per  day.  This  also  was  refused,  it  having  been  ascer 
tained  that  although  negro  miners  received  less  than  the 
amount  offered,  white  miners  received  more.  A  few 
months  ago,  the  same  companies,  needing  foremen,  sent 
a  mining  engineer  to  Italy,  and  our  department  granted 
the  permit  for  them,  after  securing  a  written  contract  by 
which  the  companies  bound  themselves  to  pay  such  fore 
men  20s.  a  day,  the  wages  paid  to  English  foremen  at 
Johannesburg. ' ' 

' i  In  conclusion  let  me  say  that  the  department  which 
I  have  the  honor  of  representing  not  only  does  not  en- 

59 


The  Italian  in  America 

courage  immigration,  but  does  everything  in  its  power 
to  fight  those  who  would  force  its  increase.  The  most 
recent  example  is  this:  Our  law  allowed  steamship  com 
panies  to  have  an  agent  in  every  commune  in  the  kingdom, 
but  by  an  amendment  of  January  4,  1904,  the  number  of 
such  agents  is  reduced  to  one  for  each  company,  and  only 
one  for  every  group  of  twenty  or  thirty  municipalities," 

ELIOT  LOKD. 


60 


CHAPTEK  IY 

ITALIAN   SETTLEMENT   IN   AMEEICAN   CITIES 

The  first  employment  at  hand  for  the  average  Italian 
on  landing  in  this  country  is  offered  in  the  cities  of  the 
Northern  Atlantic  coast  or  on  the  railway  lines — steam 
and  electric — linking  the  cities  and  towns.  He  cannot 
speak  English  and  understands  barely  a  few  words,  if  any 
at  all.  Hejhas  or^ly  a  few  dollars  in  his  pocket,  and  must 
have  immediate  paying  occupation  for  his  support.  This 
he  secures,  through  friends  or  agents  of  contractors,  as 
a  common  laborer  on  roads,  docks,  trenches,  basements 
and  other  public  and  private  work.  Padronihave  driven 
rffains  with  him,  taking  advantage  of  his^  neces- 
Many  are  no  doubt  still  imposed  upon,  though  a 
contractor's  agent  is  entitled  to  a  reasonable  fee  for  his 
service,  like  any  other  broker.  The  immigrant  has  no 
more  claim  to  free  service  than  the  client  of  any  domestic 
labor  agency. 

The  mass  of  the  immigrants  are  classed  as  unskilled 
•laborers,  or  without  defined  training.  This  classifica 
tion  is  passably  correct,  but  it  should  be  borne  in  mind 
that  the  great  majority  of  the  immigrants  from  Italy  have 

61 


The  Italian  in  America 

had  some  experience  in  gardening,  farming,  or  home  in 
dustries  of  some  kind.  The  line  is  not  so  sharply  drawn 
as  in  our  country  between  the  artisan  and  farm  hand. 
Many  of  the  working  men  in  the  towns  have  little  fields 
or  market  gardens  outside  which  they  cultivate  in  off 
hours.  Most  of  the  farm  hands  live  in  towns,  trudging 
often  long  distances  to  and  from  the  lands  they  cultivate, 
and  working  at  odd  jobs  in  town  when  not  otherwise 
employed.  Even  the  workersin  industries  engaging  their 
services  without  a  break,  like  the  miners  and  ^uarrymen, 
havlfusually  small  tractsjo^^andjor  crop.^  ^  vines  or  fruit 
jaising.  It  is  chiefly  in  Northern  Italy  that  factory  in 
dustries  like  ours  have  grown  up,  and  workers  are  trained 
to  the  subdivision  of  labor  and  single  specific  employ 
ment. 

There  is  a  larger  percentage  of  Italian  skilled  labdrT7 
coming  to  this  country  than  is  popularly  supposed,  andj/ 
more  than  is  marked  in  the  official  returns  of  our  ImmiJ 
gration  Department,  though  the  record  of  a  single  year, 
which  may  be  taken  as  typical,  shows  a  widely  varied 
range  of  occupation.     In  the  Annual  Keport  of  the  Com 
missioner-General  of  Immigration  for  the  fiscal  year  end 
ing  June  30, 1903,  the  occupations  of  aliens  arriving  during 
the  year  are  classified.     By  this  table  it  appears  that  253 
were  entered  from  northern  Italy  as  having  professional 
occupations  and  532  from  Southern  Italy.     The  distribu 
tion  by  professions  was  as  follows: 

62 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

From  North-     From  South 
ern  Italy.  era  Italy. 

Acton 13  4 

Clergy 18  42 

Editors 7  3 

Engineers 42  23 

Lawyers 4  5 

Musicians 32  273 

Physicians  17  24 

Sculptors  and  artists 81  65 

Teachers 18  51 

Not  specified 1C  42 

Total 253  532 

In  the  various  trades  and  industries  the  distribution 
was,  viz.: 

Northern  Italy.  Southern  Italy. 

Bakers   182  605 

Barbers  and  hairdressers 2,057  2,088 

Blacksmiths    236  913 

Brewers   15  4 

Butchers 51  265 

Carpenters  and  joiners 396  2,583 

Clerks  and  accountants 175  292 

Engravers   5  7 

Gardeners 62  262 

Ironworkers 19  233 

Jewellers 9  85 

Locksmiths   13  9 

Machinists 48  58 

Mariners 259  1,790 

Masons 1,251  2,9^5 

Mechanics   (not  specified) 82  257 

Millers    23  165 

Miners    2,169  351 

Painters  and  glaziers 63  15 

63 


The  Italian  in  America 


Northern  Italy.  Southern  Italy. 

Plumbers  4  i 

Printers    13  62 

Saddlers  and  harness  makers 5  28 

Seamstresses  and  dressmakers 222  2,398 

Shipwrights 3  .... 

Shoemakers 326  4,636 

Stone-cutters 436  542 

Tailors 206  3,258 

Tanners  and  curriers 11  37 

Tinners    15  77 

Tobacco    manufacturers^. 15  .... 

Watch  and  clockmakers 15  43 

Weavers  and  spinners 226  348 

Wheelwrights 3  16 

Not    specified 131  241 

Total  6,760  24,895 

Agents  or  factors 7  9 

Bankers   1  2 

Farmers   200  678 

Hotel  keepers 12  17 

Tffl  I"™"*?    15,622  85,682 

Merchant  dealers  and  grocers 422  872 

Personal  and  domestic  servants 1,956  6,606 

Not  stated 166  1,045 

Total 24,848  127,302 

MISCELLANEOUS. 

No     occupations     (including     women 

and  children) ' 5,562  43,388 


Grand  Total 37,429 


196,117 


In  the  Eeport  of  the  Industrial  Commission  on  Immi 
gration — 1901 — a  digest  was  printed  of  the  industrial 

64 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

statistics  of  the  census  of  1890,  showing,  among  other 
records,  the  percentage  of  total  numbers  of  males  em 
ployed  of  each  nationality  in  the  principal  industries  en 
tered  by  them.  In  this  table  Italy  figures  as  follows: 

Per  cent. 

ITALY 

Laborers  not  specified 

Steam  railroad  employes 10.56 

Miners ,  and  quarrymen 8.51 

Merchants  and  dealers 

Agricultural  laborers {.3.92 

Hucksters  and  peddlers 2. 

Barbers  and  hairdressers 2.91 

Boot  and  shoemakers 2.80 

Tailors 1.99 

Farmers  and  planters 1.89 

The   nationalities  showing   the  largest  percentage  ofjj 
unskilled  labor  in  this  compilation   were  respectively,  u 
Italy  (34.150),  Hungary  (32.440),  Ireland  (25.160),  an(f* 
French  Canada  (16.430). 

What  is  reckoned  as  unskilled  labor  is  specially  in  de 
mand  for  heavy  outdoor  or  manufacturing  work  of  the   I 
crudest  kind,  because  the  ambitious  American-born  work 
man  has  risen  above  this  level  and  does  not  care  to  com-  I 
pete  on  it.    Thejtalian  immigrant  is  now  perforce  content  I 
to  do  it  for  the  time  until  he  has  gained  a  better  footholy 
in  the  country,  but  his  children  born  here  will  not  engage 
jn  it,_and  educated  working  men  generally  will  not  stoop 
to  it.     Among  the  Italian  laborers  on  our  street  and  rail- 

65 


The  Italian  in  "America 

ways  are  some  clerks  and  artisans,  and  even  professional 
men.  Their  ignorance  of  our  language  constrains  them 
to  hard  labor  until  they  are  able  to  make  their  services 
otherwise  valuable  to  American  employers.  In  such  work 
they  can  be  readily  directed  by  Italian  foremen,  and  the 
average  immigrant  shrinks  from  exposing  his  ignorance 
to  any  but  his  own  countrymen.  He  has  reason  for  this 
in  the  common  lack  of  patience  with  his  supposed  dullness 
and  blunders.  I  have  heard  Americans,  otherwise  ap 
parently  rational,  shout  at  Italians  as  if  bellowing  would 
make  spoken  English  more  intelligible,  and  swear  at  them 
as  if  ignorance  of  English  was  an  unspeakable  offence. 
The  Italian  is  sensitive  to  ridicule,  and  feels  the  injustice 
of  abuse  keenly  whether  he  resents  it  openly  or  not.  Hence 
/  he  is  slow  to  venture  alone  in  a  strange  community  or  to 
seek  employment  on  a  farm  where  he  will  be  isolated  until 
he  is  able  to  speak  English  with  considerable  fluency,  and 
has  become  well  acquainted  with  American  ways  and  re 
quirements.  The  clustering  in  cities,  so  often  complained 
of,  is  attributable  not  only  to  his  fondness  for  social  life 
and  lack  of  means  to  enter  the  country,  but  to  the  lack 
of  invitation  with  any  assurance  of  patience  or  sympathy. 
In  the  early  years  of  the  Italian  influx  the  newcomers 
were  ready  to  take  up  any  occupation  which  promised 
them  a  living.  In  the  wastes  of  an  American  city  they 
saw  an  opportunity.  They  multiplied  the  number  of  rag 
pickers  and  refuse  sorters.  They  extended  the  fruit  mar- 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

kets  and  cut  down  the  cost  to  the  ordinary  buyer  by  selling 
from  handcarts  and  stands  in  every  part  of  the  city.  The 
popular  taste  for  fruit  grew  with  its  fuller  display  and 
convenience  of  purchase.  So  the  number  of  street  fruit 
dealers  very  greatly  increased.  The  persistence  of  the 
Italian  and  his  care  in  handling  his  stock  gave  him  prac 
tically  the  control  of  this  business  until  the  competition 
of  the  Greek  immigrants  shook  his  monopoly.  He  can 
still  contend  on  equal  terms,  but  he  has  no  special  bent 
for  peddling,  and  is  disposed  to  engage  in  more  active  and 
laborious  occupations,  unless  he  can  acquire  a  permanent 
paying  stand,  or  a  fruit  store,  or  a  green  grocery.  Thus 
the  Greek  has  been  pushing  the  Italian  off  the  street  and 
increasing  the  number  of  small  fruit  and  grocery  stores. 
Bootblacking  is  tiresome  and  grimy  work,  and  steady, 
sinewy,  patient  workers  like  the  Italians  excel  in  it,  as 
is  shown  by  the  Italian  occupation  of  stands  in  all  suitable 
locations.  Italian  barber  shops  have  become  numerous 
also,  and  attract  general  custom.  Italian  tailors,  men 
and  women,  compete  successfully  in  the  larger  workshops 
and  in  their  rooms  in  lodging  houses.  In  a  recent  canvass 
of  a  representative  block  in  the  Italian  quarter  in  Phila 
delphia,  housing  358  Italian  families,  the  occupations  of 
the  heads  of  families  listed  according  to  the  number  en 
gaged  in  each  from  the  highest  down  were:  common  out 
door  laborers,  shopkeepers,  rag  pickers  or  rag  dealers, 
tailors,  peddlers  and  vendors,  unskilled  employees  in 

67 


The  Italian  in  America 

factories  and  stores,  barbers,  street  cleaners,  cobblers, 
shoemakers  and  musicians.  This  marks  the  drift  of  the 
greater  part  of  the  Italian  influx  into  the  cities  of  the  East 
in  the  early  years  of  its  settlement. 

The  advance  of  settlement  in  the  cities  is  substantially 
alike  in  all  cases.  If  Italians  are  employed  in  manufac- 
turing^establisbments,  they  seek  lodgings  near  their  work 
shops  to  save  carfare  or  long  walks,  if  they  can,  and  there 
may"  be  clusters  of  Italian  tenements  lor  this  ""reason  in 
widely  separated  quarTers~of  a  city:  BntTEey  "are  at 
tracted  first  ordinarily  to  some  particular  precinct,  ward 
or  quarter  from  its  cheap  accommodation  and  their  natural 
disposition  to  flock  together  in  spite  of  their  provincial 
>rejudices.  If  laborers  on  railways  or  other  works  near 
a  city  are  not  lodged  in  temporary  camps  on  the  ground, 
they  are  likely  to  seek  lodgings  in  the  neighboring  city 
and  overcrowd  for  the  time  the  Italian  tenements. 
,  Natives  of  the  same  community  or  district  at  home  will 
prefer  the  same  living  associations  here,  if  they  can  con 
trive  to  renew  them.  Hence  a  little  new  colony  in  a  city 
is  often  composed  almost  exclusively  of  immigrants  from 
the  same  district,  and  a  larger  settlement  is  made  up  of 
different  district  colonies.  For  years  these  colonies  are 
likely  to  retain  their  distinctive  habits  and  clannishness, 

ip  underfusing  school  influences 

and  become  Americanized,  the  original  divisions  fade  away. 
In  spite  of  the  jealousy  of  the  Irish  at  the  intrusion  and 

68 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

their  free-spoken  jibes  at  the  "Dago,"  the  first  cluster 
of  Italians  in  a  city  has  commonly  been  in  tenements  where 
the  Irish  are  thickest.  They  may  divide  a  tenement,  at 
first,  but  the  Irish  vacate  it  sooner  or  later.  There  is  less 
clashing  between  the  two  nationalities  than  might  be  ex 
pected.  This  is  largely  attributable,  probably,  to  the 
essential  good  nature  of  both.  The  common  religion  isl  y 
also  a  bond  of  union,  and  Italians  are  usually  attracted  to!  ^< 
Irish- American  churches  and  parish  schools  while  they  \ 
are  too  few  or  too  poor  to  establish  churches  of  their  own. 
The  influences  of  a  Catholic  church  organization  are  stead 
fastly  bent  against  racial  antagonisms,  and  for  the  pro 
motion  of  the  Christian  fellowship  of  its  followers.  Its 
chief  directors  and  many  of  its  priests  of  all  nationalities 
have  been  trained  in  Italian  seminaries  or  have  visited 
Italy  more  or  less  frequently,  and  all  look  to  Rome  as 
the  prime  seat  of  their  church.  Their  knowledge  of  Italian 
foundations,  customs  and  often  of  the  language,  and  their 
sympathy  with  the  people  have  made  them  greatly  influ 
ential  in  the  religious  and  broadly  moral  guidance  of  the 
immigrants.  Hence,  it  has  been  a  natural  sequence  for 
the  Italians  to  follow  the  Irish  into  their  churches,  as 
into  their  tenements,  and  with  the  increase  in  tEeir  num- 


bers  to  nipqrrirn  the  churflhfiR  .like, the  tenements. 

Thus  in  New  York,  for  example,  the  old  Church  of  the 
Transfiguration  on  Mott  Street,  in  a  parish  established 
in  1827,  has  passed  from  the  Irish- Americans  to  the  ItaL1 

69 


The  Italian  in  America 

ians.  So,  too,  with  the  Church  of  our  Lady  of  Pompeii 
in  Bleecker  Street,  the  successor  of  the  Church  of  St. 
Benedict.  Another  prominent  instance  is  the  Church  of 
St.  Anthony  in  Sullivan  Street,  dedicated  in  1866,  when 
the  congregation  was  rnaiDly  Irish- Americans,  but  trans 
ferred  to  the  Italians  through  the  spread  of  their  settle 
ment.  .This  procedure  has  been  so  common  in  the  course 
of  Italian  establishment  that  it  is  popularly  remarked  that 
the  Irish  build  but  the  Italians  inherit. 

There  is  a  well-grounded  complaint  of  Italian  city  set 
tlements  that  their  tenements  are  insufferably  packed. 
The  average  density  of  population  in  the  Italian  quarter 
of  the  North  End  of  Boston/was  1.41  to"  a  roojfe  when 
the  tenement-house  census  was  taken  in  1891,  and  there 
was  little  noted  relief  from  the  pressure  at  the  end  of 
the  century.  Conditions  in  Philadelphia  were  even  worse 
and  are  still  unrelieved.  The  latest  census  statistics  show 
that  the  Second,  Third  and  Fourth  Wards,  where  nearly 
all  the  Italians  live,  contain  more  than  one-sixteenth  of 

thft  total  pr»pn1fl.ffjnn  nf  f.ViP  nify  i>  ]pggjjn^j^np  One-hun- 
dred-and-fiftieth  of  the  area. 

In  New  York  City  the  Fourth,  Sixth,  Eighth,  Twelfth, 
Fourteenth,  Fifteenth,  Seventeenth  and  the  Nineteenth 
"Wards  now  contain  by  far  the  greater  part  of  the  Italian 
tenement-house  population,  though  thousands  of  Italian 
families  are  distributed  through  other  wards,  chiefly  from 
the  Fifth  to  the  Twenty-second,  inclusive. 

70 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

The  largest  percentage  of  the  entire  Italian  tenement- 
house  population  is  shown  in  Wards  Six  and  Fourteen. 
In  the  first-named  2,036  families  of  Italian  parentage 
constitute  61.01  per  cent,  of  the  tenement-house  popula 
tion.  In  Ward  Fourteen,  extending  from  Broadway  to 
the  Bowery  and  from  Canal  to  East  Houston  Street,  there 
were  4,856  Italian  tenement  families,  out  of  a  total  of 
5,631,  according  to  the  recent  report  of  the  Tenement 
House  Department;  a  percentage  of  86.24.  This  is  the 
highest  percentage  given  for  any  ward  in  the  city,  though 
Ward  Twelve  exceeds  all  others  in  its  number  of  Italian 
tenement  families,  according  to  the  same  official  report. 
Here  the  Italian  families  number  5,220,  but  they  consti 
tute  only  6.12  per  cent,  of  the  total  tenement-house  pop 
ulation.  Block  1,442  in  the  Fourteenth  Ward  has  the 
unenviable  distinction  of  being  the  most  densely  populated 
in  the  ward,  and  containing  the  largest  number  of  families 
of  Italian  parentage  in  the  city.  In  this  block  492  Italian 
families  are  lodged  in  the  area  extending  north  from  Prince 
Street,  between  Mott  and  Elizabeth  Streets. 

In  the  city  at  large  there  wereJ39,623  families  of  Italian 
parentage,  as  the  official  report  records,  or  slightly  more 
than  half  the  number  of  families  (56,885),  whose  heads 
were  American.  In  the  total  number  of  Italian  resident 
families  in  tenements  and  other  houses,  Ward  Twelve 
leads  with  a  reported  number  of  6,121  in  1903,  and  Ward 
Fourteen  is  second  with  5,641.  This  enumeration  reck- 

71 


The  Italian  in  rAmerica 

oned  that  the  heads  of  families  constituted  7.  57  per  cent. 
of  the  total  of  the  heads  of  families  in  the  city. 

The  evils  of  congestion  and  wretched  housing  have 
been  graphically  set  forth  by  Jacob  Riis,  Kate  Holladay 
Claghorn,  Emily  Wayland  Dinwiddie  and  other  expert 
observers.  The  shameful  construction  of  tenements  under 
lax  municipal  regulations  and  oversight  is  chiefly  respons 
ible  for  the  intolerable  conditions  still  existing  in  New 
York  and  other  large  cities.  Certainly  the  Italian  immi- 

1      "**» 

grant  did  not  build  such  breeders  of  disease,  death  and 
crime  as  are  still  tolerated  in  our  larger  cities.  One  row 
of  seven  alley  houses,  recently  observed  by  Miss  Dinwid 
die  in  Philadelphia,  stands  back  to  back  with  another  row 
so  that  all  ventilation  from  the  rear  is  cut  off.  Such 

•  —  meagre  sunlight  and  air  as  enter  its  windows  strain  through 
a  court  four  feet  three  inches  wide.     All  day  long  lamps 

I     are  kept  burning  in  these  pestilential  buildings  where  day 

^4s  barely  distinguished  from  night. 

The  vileness  of  such  lodgings  is  accented,  no  doubt,  by 
the  insufferable  overcrowding  of  tenants,  which  has  been 
tolerated.  In  his  poverty  and  anxiety  to  cut  down  living 
expenses^  thft  Tta.lia.-n  JTn^iffranthas  too  often  disregarded 
dfipfiflfty  He  needed  the  hand  of  official 


restraint  and  still  needs  it.  In  the  Italian  quarter  of 
Philadelphia  it  is  lately  recorded  that  30  Italian  families, 
numbering  123  persons,  were  living  in  34  rooms.  Here 
is  clearly  a  call  for  better  and  stricter  municipal  regulations 

72 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

—and  immigrants  should  not  be  suffered  to  struggle 
through  such  conditions,  with  grievous  experience  to 
themselves  and  the  public. 

It  is  to  their  credit,  nevertheless,  that  so  many  are  do 
ing  so  well  under  the  influences  that  hamper  them.  In  a 
recent  issue  of  " Americans  in  Process,"  a  publication  of 
the  South  End  House  in  Boston,  it  is  observed  that "  many 
of  the  Italians  (in  Boston)  are  beginning  to  seek  something 
better.  They  are  now  in  considerable  numbers  moving 
into  the  more  desirable  tenements  to  the  west  of  Hanover 
Street;  and  some  families,  especially  of  the  second  gen 
eration,  are  taking  a  more  significant  step  in  detaching 
themselves  from  the  colony  and  settling  amid  pleasanter 
surroundings."  It  is  certain  that  many  Italian  families 
are  now  living  in  the  outlying  wards  and  suburbs  of  Bos 
ton,  particularly  in  Winthrop,  South  Boston  and  Dor 
chester,  in  clean,  comfortable  houses. 

In  Philadelphia,  also,  it  is  remarked  by  Miss  Dinwiddie 
that  "  a  large  proportion  of  the  worst  houses  were  occu 
pied  by  recent  immigrants  who  had  not  had  time  to  work 
their  way  up  to  living  in  more  expensive  dwellings  and 
did  not  know  where  to  seek  redress  from  the  discomforts 
they  suffered  from  in  their  present  houses,  if  they  knew 
or  desired  anything  better."  In  short,  there  is  no  large 
city  in  the  country  in  which  Italian  progress  is  not  marked ; 
and  Italian  advance  in  New  York  under  the  reformed  con- 
dition  of  the  tenement  districts  is  particularly  noteworthy. 

73 


The  Italian  in  America 

Any  sweeping  classification  of  congested  sections  as 
the  slums  of  a  city  is  untenable.  Congestion  is  necessarily 
a  menace  to  health.  It  is  socially  undesirable.  It  is  to 
be  deplored  and  remedied  by  every  feasible  agency.  But 
congestion  does  not  make  the  slum,  necessarily,  with  its 
essential  characteristics  of  squalor,  degradation  and  crime. 
The  congested  districts  of  New  York,  Philadelphia  and 
other  leading  American  cities  to-day  are  not  slums,  though 
they  doubtless  contain  slums.  It  is  by  its  average  char 
acter  that  a  district  must  be  judged  and  classified,  and 
not  by  existing  exceptions. 

There  is  not  an  exalted  standard  of  cleanliness  in  the 
congested  quarters  of  New  York  or  other  great  American 
cities,  but  they  are  not  intolerably  filthy,  except  in  spots, 
and  the  inhabitants  are  not  sunk  in  degradation  beyond 
any  rational  prospect  of  betterment.  Even  in  our  most 
thickly  congested  city  districts  the  greater  part  of  the 
families  are,  at  least,  decently  cleanly,  and  there  is  not 
a  single  district  in  which  a  regard  for  cleanliness  and  an 
observance  of  essential  sanitary  regulations  are  not  stead 
ily  advancing  under  the  pressure  of  improved  systems  of 
tenement-house  inspection,  the  ordinances  of  public  health 
boards,  the  efforts  of  progressive  settlement  workers, 
and  the  rising  public  appreciation  of  improved  sani 
tation  and  cleanliness.  The  congestion  in  New  York 
exceeds  that  of  any  other  American  city,  yet  any 
candid  and  close  investigation  of  existing  conditions 

74 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

in  this  city  will  unquestionably  sustain  these  conclu 
sions. 

It  may  be  unhesitatingly  affirmed  that  all  these  sections 
are  in  better  condition  to-day — and  very  materially  better 
—than  they  were  at  the  time  of  original  occupation  by 
Italian  immigrants.  Conclusive  testimony  as  to  the 
cleanliness  of  Italian  tenements  is  furnished  by  the  in 
spectors  of  the  Tenement  House  Department  of  New 
York  City.  They  declare  that  tenements  in  the  Italian 
quarters  are  in  as  good  condition  as  any  in  the  city,  and 
much  cleaner  than  those  in  the  Jewish  and  Irish  tenement 
districts.  The  Italian  settlement  has  assuredly  increased 
property  values  and  bettered  the  average  moral  character 
of  the  districts.  Malodorous  Mulberry  Street,  for  ex 
ample,  has  been  practically  redeemed  within  the  last  ten 
years.  Many  new  tenements  have  been  erected  through 
out  this  section,  built,  owned  and  tenanted  by  Ital 
ians.  Fifteen  years  ago,  before  the  Italian  influx,  25  feet 
tenements  were  valued  at  from  $10,000  to  $15,000.  They 
are  now  worth  from  $36,000  to  $40,000.  Adolfo  Kossi 
states  in  his  latest  report  to  the  Emigration  Department 
of  Italy  that  the  character  of  Italian  tenants  and  their 
prompt  payments  have  lifted  the  valuation  of  tenement- 
house  property  in  the  Italian  quarter  to  from  $25,000  to 
$30,000,  while  like  property  in  other  quarters  is  valued 
at  from  $15,000  to  $18,000. 

There  has  been  even  a  more  notable  change  in  the  dis- 

75 


The  Italian  in  America 

trict  running  south  of  Washington  Square  to  Canal  Street 
and  extending  from  Macdougal  Street  to  West  Broadway. 
Fifteen  years  ago  this  was  one  of  the  most  notorious  of 
the  so-called  slum  quarters  of  the  city,  very  largely  tene- 
mented  by  negro  and  French  families,  and  often  glaring 
in  its  dissolute  and  riotous  displays.  Here  the  Italians 
began  to  settle  about  fourteen  years  ago,  and  their  influx 
now  dominates  the  section.  Most  of  the  French  families 
have  gone  uptown,  and  few  negroes  are  left,  except  in 
Third  Street  and  Minetta  Lane.  Much  of  the  property 
is  held  by  old  estates  which  have  usually  been  backward 
in  selling  or  improving.  This  disposition  has  retarded 
progress,  but  the  advance  of  the  section  has  nevertheless 
lieen  remarkable.  ISTow,  whenever  any  real  estate  in 
j/this  section  comes  into  the  market,  it  is  eagerly  bid  for 
by  Italian  operators  and  builders.  Hancock  Street  on 
both  sides  from  Bleecker  to  Bedford  now  shows  lines  of 
tenements  that  would  be  a  credit  to  any  city.  The  popu 
lation  of  this  quarter  is  pre-eminently  of  Northern  Italians 
— chiefly  mechanics  and  storekeepers,  earning  unusually 
high  average  incomes,  and  naturally  able  to  make  the 
best  showing  of  progress.  The  value  of  real  estate  in 
this  section  has  greatly  increased,  and  the  quarter  is,  in 
the  main,  of  excellent  character. 

Relatively  less  progress  may  be  noted  in  other  quarters, 
but  there  is  no  one  in  which  a  tenement  occupied  by  Ital 
ians  is  not  regarded  as  an  exceptionally  profitable  and 

76 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

certain  investment.  Italians  are  almost  invariably  prompt 
payers  on  rent  day,  and  their  landlords  have  no  cause 
for  worry  over  evasions  and  delays.  The  over-crowding 
by  tenants  is  still  too  prevalent,  and  is  wearing  on  the 
tenement  quarters  as  well  as  detrimental  to  health,  but 
in  other  respects  Italian  tenancy  is  distinctly  desirable. 
No  doubt,  exhibits  of  filthy  rooms  may  be  brought  to 
light,  and  the  standard  of  personal  cleanliness  of  recent 
immigrants  from  f  o  ithern  Italy  is  undeniably  low.  But 
even  the  mass  of  these  Italians  like  to  have  their  homes 
neat  and  attractive,  and  Italian  women  as  a  body  are 
excellent  housewives. 

Moreover,  a  growing  improvement  in  these  tenement- 
house  districts  is  noted,  as  might  be  expected  with  the 
advance  of  greater  permanency  of  settlement,  and  the 
disposition  of  Italians  to  invest  their  savings  in  real  es-  ^ 
tate  investments  in  the  quarters  where  they  live.  The 
prevailing  form  of  these  investments  is,  of  course,  in  tene 
ment  houses.  The,  thrift  of  the  Italian  is  so  exceptional 
that  even  bootblacks  and  common  laborers  sometimes 
saye  enough  to  figure  ««  i^nm^^i\\.  iflTiHlnrdg  Italian 
barbers  and  grocery  men  quite  frequently  acquire  equities 
in  tenements.  There  is  further  a  rising  disposition  of  the 
more  considerable  merchants  and  especially  of  the  fruit 
erers  to  invest  their  earnings  in  tenements  in  the  Italian 
quarters. 

Such  investments,  at  first,  are  rarely  sufficient  to  secure 

77 


The  Italian  in  'America 

clear  title.  The  properties  secured  are  usually  heavily 
mortgaged.  The  small  investor  is  likely  to  move  into 
the  house  which  he  purchases  and  act  as  janitor  and  rent 
collector.  If  his  calculations  are  correct,  and  he  can  keep 
his  house  full,  he  will  pay  off  a  considerable  portion  of 
the  mortgage  yearly,  and  in  time  become  an  unencum 
bered  owner.  Oftentimes  a  tenement  is  acquired  too  by 
obtaining  a  lease  for  from  three  to  ten  years  before  un 
dertaking  its  purchase.  If  a  favorable  lease  can  be  ob 
tained,  the  saving  by  sub-letting  may  suffice  to  effect  a 
purchase  subsequently. 

The  increase  of  the  real  estate  holdings  thus  acquired 
in  New  York  is  remarkable.  It  is  stated  by  Mr.  G.  Tuoti, 
a  representative  Italian  operator  in  real  estate,  that  there 
was  not  a  single  Italian  owner  of  real  estate  twenty  years 
ago  in  the  districts  where  the  Italian  owners  now  pre 
dominate.  He  has  recently  completed  a  list  of  more  than 
eight  hundred  land  owners  of  Italian  descent  in  this  city, 
whose  aggregate  holdings  are  approximately  $15,000,000. 
This  is  the  more  noteworthy  because  the  disposition  of  the 
Italians  to  invest  in  real  estate  here  is  of  comparatively 
recent  growth,  and  the  common  use  of  their  savings  has 
been  to  establish  themselves  in  business. 

A  highly  reliable  computation  of  Italian  savings  and 
investments  in  New  York  City  has  lately  been  furnished 
by  Mr.  Gino  C.  Speranza,  Vice- President  of  the  Society 
for  the  Protection  of  Italian  Immigrants.  He  reckons  the 

78 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

individual  holdings  of  Italians  in  the  city  savings  banks  to 
aggregate  over  $15,000,000.  Their  real  estate  holdings  are 
said  to  approximate  4,000,  of  the  clear  value  of  $20,000,- 
000.  He  estimates  that  10,000  stores  in  the  city,  speaking 
roundly,  are  owned  by  Italians,  and  sets  their  value  at 
$7,000,000,  to  which  may  be  added  a  further  investment  in 
wholesale  business  of  about  $7,000,000.  The  total  ma 
terial  value  of  the  property  of  the  Italian  colony  in  New 
York  is  over  $60,000,000  by  his  computation,  a  value,  as 
he  states,  relatively  much  below  that  of  the  Italian  pos 
sessions  in  St.  Louis,  San  Francisco,  Boston  and  Chicago, 
but  "  a  fair  showing  for  the  greatest  '  dumping  ground  ' 
of  America." 

The  progress  of  the  Italians  in  New  York  City  is  even 
more  significantly  shown  by  other  summaries.     The  or 
ganization  of  the  Italian  Chamber  of  Commerce  has  been 
one  of  the  most  efficient  agencies  for  the  promotion  of 
profitable  trade  between  Italy  and  this  country  and  the 
advance  of  Italian  unity  and  enterprise.     This  chamber 
was  founded  in  1887  with  only  a  few  charter  members,  */ 
but  now  embraces  over  two  hundred  in  its  membership, 
comprising  a  majority  of  the  principal  Italian  business 
men  in  greater  New  York.     The  advance  of  the  Italian 
in  the  line  of  the  professions  in  the  city  is  shown  by  the 
reckoning  of  one  hundred  and  fifteen  Italian  registererfp^ 
physicians,  sixty-three  pharmacists,  four  dentists,  twenty-  ^> 
one  lawyers,  fifteen  public  school  teachers,  nine  archi-  /*  \ 


The  Italian  in  America 

tects,  four  manufacturers  of  technical  instruments  and 
seven  mechanical  engineers. 

There  are  over  three  hundred  Italian  "  banks  "  so-called 
in  the  city,  though  probably  nine-tenths  of  them  are  little 
more  than  remitting  and  transportation  agencies.  Some, 
however,  are  transacting  a  regular  banking  business  and 
are  of  excellent  standing.  A  very  considerable  number 
of  the  Italians  are  depositors  in  city  savings  banks,  and 
there  is  one  distinctively  Italian  savings  bank  on  the 
corner  of  Mulberry  and  Spring  Streets,  which  has  an 
aggregate  of  deposits  approximating  $1,100,000,  and  7,000 
open  accounts,  roundly,  showing  an  average  of  about  $170 
for  each  depositor.  Two  Italian  steamship  lines,  with 
bi-weekly  sailings  from  New  York  have  been  established 
in  addition  to  the  general  foreign  lines.  ^Sixteen  daily 
and  weekly  Italian  newspapers  in  New  York  City  alone 
show  that  Italians  here  have  become  newspaper  readers 
more  generally  than  in  their  own  country^ 

Through  the  efforts  of  the  missionary  sisters  of  the 
Sacred  Heart,  and  the  contributions  of  resident  Italians, 
the  Columbus  Hospital  was  founded  in  1892,  and  is  doing 
remarkably  effective  service  in  proportion  to  its  available 
means.  It  is  recognized  as  an  Italian  foundation  dis 
tinctively,  yet  there  is  not  the  slightest  prejudice  of  na 
tionality  in  its  conduct,  as  is  apparent  in  the  organization 
of  its  medical  and  surgical  staff,  for  not  one  of  its  twenty- 
three  physicians  is  an  Italian.  Another  really  admirable 

80 


{7s«A*7 

V      ,_,-      r   i£ 

K3ITY 

F 


The  Italian  in  America 

York,  Philadelphia  and  Boston.  The  foremost  in  these 
cities  are  not  as  wealthy  as  the  leading  Italian  business 
men  of  New  York,  but  the  average  living  is  more  health 
ful  and  desirable.  There  are  rarely  any  big,  dark  tene 
ments  to  invite  congestion  and  disease.  The  lodging 
houses  are  often  shabby  and  dingy,  but  they  are  quite 
commonly  old  residence  houses  with  fairly  spacious  rooms, 
and  the  poorest  are  usually  open  to  sunlight  and  fresh 
air.  House  and  room  rents  are  lower,  and  there  is  less 
pressure  of  applicants.  There  is  still  a  tendency  to  over 
crowding,  but  no  approach  to  actual  indecency.  There 
afo  convenient  places  for  the  children  to  play  without 
risking  their  lives  and  becoming  a  nuisance  in  congested 
streets.  Social  influences  generally  are  more  uplifting, 
and  the  children  especially  show  the  improvement. 

All  these  points  I  have  noted  in  close  personal  investi 
gation  in  the  cities  of  New  England  and  the  Middle  States 
chiefly  attracting  Italian  immigration.  Bridgeport  is  one 
of  the  most  progressive  of  the  smaller  cities  on  the 
Atlantic  coast,  and  it  assuredly  makes  a  remarkable  exhibit 
of  the  utilization  and  value  of  diversified  immigration^  A 
pftjnHloe  against  immigration  springs  from 


assumption  that  it  is^  filling  the  opening's  for  pm  piny  in  put. 
bgre  to  tfre  exclusion  of  American  workmen.  The  actual 
,.  /effect  —  on  the  contrary  —  is  marked  in  the  development  of 
Bridgeport.  From  the  reckoning  of  the  Board  of  Trade 
it  appears  that  there  are  more  expert  mechanics  in  this 

82 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

city  than  in  any  other  in  the  State,  and  that  the  influx 
of  immigrants  has  operated  to  extend  greatly  the  demand 
for  skilled  labor,  which  is  drawn  from  New  England  and 
the  Middle  States.  Thus  the  labor  of  American  workmen 
has  not  been  displaced,  but  attracted. 

It  Is  estimated  that  the  population  of  this  city  of  Italian 
descent  is  now  approximately  3,500.  In  view  of  the  fact 
that  the  bulk  of  the  Italian  immigration  has  been  of  com 
mon  laborers,  doing  the  crudest  and  heaviest  outdoor  work 
at  the  lowest  wages  of  unskilled  labor,  their  persistent 
thrift  and  advance  as  a  body  are  remarkable,  j^here  are 
practically  no  drones  nor  beggars  among  them,  and  only 
a  small  percentage  is  driven  by  sickness  to  the  almshouse 
or  receives  any  support  from  charitable  associations.  It 
is  found,  too,  in  Bridgeport,  as  elsewhere  in  New  England, 
that  temporary  help  usually  suffices  to  render  applicants 
self-supporting. 

A  considerable  number  of  the  working  men  have  put 
their  savings  into  little  shops,  and  in  the  extension  of  the 
fruit  business  they  have  been  notably  successful — two  of 
them  having  become  the  leading  dealers  of  the  city.  One 
has  founded  and  is  successfully  conducting  a  progressive 
Italian  newspaper,  II  Sole,  published  semi-weekly,  and 
circulating  widely  beyond  Bridgeport.  They  have  or 
ganized  a  church  society  and  recently  dedicated  a  repre 
sentative  church,  and  their  settlement  is  now  firmly  estab 
lished.  It  is  reckoned  that  they  now  own  property  in 

83 


in  An 

ie  city  to  the  extent  of  fully  $800,000,  and  they  have 
shown  themselves  heartily  appreciative  of  the  advantages 

id  opportunities  of  American  citizenship  They  are 
law-abiding,  llBinarkabliy  Temperate,  devoted  to  their  fam 
ilies  and  very  anxious  to  give  their  children  the  advantage 
of  the  education  that  has  not  been  open  to  them  in  the 
country  of  their  birth.  rr^Ttfl1lfliTl  WQTr>pn  are  exemplary 
in  their  chastity  and  family  relations. 

The  mayor  of  Bridgeport,  the  city  clerk  and  represen 
tatives  of  leading  savings  banks  have  given  special  tes 
timonials  to  the  good  character,  industry,  thrift  and  loyal 
American  citizenship  of  the  Italian  settlement  in  Bridge 
port.  Mayor  Mulvihill  observed  that:  "The  Italians 
are  a  religious  and  law-abiding  people,  and  will  compare 
favorably  with  any  equal  portion  of  American  citizens 
whether  native  or  adopted."  City  Clerk  Buckingham 
stated:  " There  is  no  doubt  that  at  the  present  time  the 
standard  of  Italian  citizenship  is  of  a  higher  grade  in  this 
country  than  ever  before,  and  what  is  true  of  the  country 
in  general  is  true  of  Bridgeport  in  particular.  *  *  * 
To-day  we  find  the  Italian  taking  a  prominent  part  in 
all  the  paths  of  life,  in  professions  as  well  as  in  business. 
All  professions  are  open  to  him,  and  to-day  Bridgeport 
can  point  with  pride  to  her  bright  and  intelligent  Italian 
doctors,  lawyers,  ministers  and  business  men."  The  rep 
resentatives  of  the  leading  savings  banks  report  that  the 
Italians  are  largely  depositors,  and  that  their  deposits  are 

84 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

steadily  increasing.  Their  promptness  in  meeting  obli 
gations  and  their  trustworthiness  in  general  are  particu 
larly  commended.  The  influx  of  Italian  immigrants  found 
employment  at  first  chiefly  in  city  and  railway  improve 
ments.  As  their  occupations  became  more  varied  and 
their  familiarity  with  the  conditions  of  living  here  ad 
vanced,  their  homes  have  been  scattered  throughout  the 
city  and  their  assimilation  has  been  more  rapid. 

Throughout  New  York  State  the  general  reports  were 
hardly  less  favorable.  The  mayors  of  Schenectady  and 
Syracuse,  among  others  called  upon  for  information,  were 
particularly  emphatic  in  their  certification  of  the  service, 
progress  and  general  gpod  citizenship  of  the  Italians  in 
their  cities. 

Mayor  Eisenmenger  of  Schenectady,  which  has  been 
advancing  industrially  of  late  years  more  rapidly  than 
any  other  city  in  the  State,  is  strongly  impressed  by  the 
working  service  and  faculty  of  self  support  of  the  Italians. 
They  are  not  disposed,  he  says,  to  jar  with  other  nation 
alities,  and  the  Italian  is  rarely  the  aggressor  in  any  such 
dispute.  They  found  employment  originally  chiefly  in 
railway  grading  and  city  road  work,  but  many  are  now 
small  and  apparently  prospering  tradesmen,  and  are  ac 
quiring  homes  of  their  own  in  and  near  the  city.  They 
appear  to  be  almost  uniformly  anxious  to  urge  the  educa 
tion  of  their  children,  and  he  has  seen  no  reason  to  ques 
tion  their  progressive  assimilation. 

85 


The  Italian  in  America 

Mayor  Alan  C.  Fobes  of  Syracuse  considers  that  the 
Italians  are  of  indispensable  service  in  filling  the  demand 
for  laborers  for  railway  building  and  grading,  and  for 
state  and  city  public  works.  He  regards  them  as  excep 
tionally  reliable  and  persistent  in  their  work  when  they 
are  given  employment,  and  believes  that  they  constitute 
now  an  essential  part  of  the  working  community  in  Syra 
cuse.  He  would  consider  any  move  to  displace  them  or 
discourage  their  coming  by  prejudiced  legislation  as  de 
cidedly  unwise,  and  sees  no  reason  to  question  the  certain 
assimilation  of  their  children,  at  least,  in  the  American 
stock  without  any  depreciation  of  its  average  quality. 

Mr.  Giles  II.  Stilwell,  President  of  the  Board  of  Edu 
cation  in  Syracuse,  substantially  confirms  the  view  of 
Mayor  Fobes — writing  in  response  to  an  inquiry — "  We 
have  quite  a  good  many  Italians  and  Austrians  here,  but 
they  seem  to  be  well  disposed  to  work,  are  continually 
employed,  and,  instead  of  being  a  charge  on  the  city,  are 
generally,  to  all  appearances,  saving  money,  and  many 
of  them  sending  it  back  to  the  countries  from  which  they 
came.  There  is  no  complaint  here  that  they  are  not  be 
coming  Americanized." 

In  Utica  the  enterprising  Italians  have  built  an  attrac 
tive  theatre  or  opera  house  of  their  own.  I  was  present 
one  Saturday  evening  when  nearly  every  seat  was  filled 
by  an  audience  that  was  entertained  by  a  performance  of 
Monte  Cristo.  The  performers  were  a  well-balanced  stock 

86 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

company  of  eighteen  members,  uncommonly  versatile 
artists,  as  the  offer  for  the  following  Monday  was  the 
opera  of  Cavalleria  Kusticana.  The  stage  properties  were 
nothing  to  brag  of,  but  the  acting  was  sympathetic  and 
often  vivid.  The  play  was  followed  with  a  rapt  attention 
that  would  greatly  flatter  American  stock  actors,  but  the 
Italians  took  the  tribute  of  courtesy  as  a  matter  of  course. 
This  undertaking  may  not  be  a  business  success,  for  its 
Italian  patrons  are  poor  and  there  has  been  as  yet  no  con 
siderable  attraction  of  American  theatre-goers.  But  the 
enterprise  is  a  signal  evidence  of  Italian  progress  in 
America  and  of  comparative  refinement  of  taste,  for  or 
dinary  vaudeville  shows  in  this  theatre  and  outside  failed 
to  attract  Italian  patronage.  There  is  a  childish  gratifica 
tion  in  the  marionette  shows  in  New  York  and  other 
cities,  but  whenever  an  Italian  theatre  of  any  standing 
is  opened,  like  the  theatre  Drammatico  Nazionale  of  the 
Bowery  or  the  new  theatre  in  Utica,  the  plays  that  draw 

are  plays  of  merit.  fc>.   «C /^g  J  /"  $'& 

In  the  cities  of  the  Souin  alld  TV'es'l  the  comparative 
prosperity  of  the  Italians  is  even  more  pronounced,  for 
the  demand  for  their  labor  is  keener  than  in  more  thickly 
settled  communities.j 

There  are  between  thirteen  and  fourteen  thousand,  ac 
cording  to  the  latest  enumeration,  in  the  Italian  colony 
in  New  Orleans:  93  per  cent,  of  them  are  Sicilians.  Their 
industry  and  orderliness  confute  the  prejudice  which  still 

87 


The  Italian  in  America 

lingers  against  the  immigrants  from  the  southern  Italian 
provinces.  Under  fair  conditions,  as  in  this  city,  there 
are  no  widespread  disturbances  nor  any  ground  for  com 
plaints  against  the  mass  of  the  townspeople.  The  leading 
business  men  are  now  planning  to  establish  an  Italian 
Chamber  of  Commerce,  and  it  is  probable  that  a  labor 
bureau  will  be  organized  by  this  chamber  to  provide  for 
meeting  the  great  demand  for  labor  coming  from  the  in 
terior  of  Louisiana,  Florida,  Alabama,  Tennessee,  Texas, 
Oklahoma  and  Indian  Territory,  for  which  region  New  \ 
Orleans  is  now  the  main  centre  of  supply  of  Italian  immi 
grant  labor.  An  Italian  foundation,  especially  com 
mended  by  Signor  Rossi  after  his  recent  inspection,  is  the 
Sacred  Heart  Mission  which  has  established  dependent 
elementary  schools,  a  kindergarten  and  orphanage.  In 
these  schools,  as  Signor  Rossi  reports,  thousands  of  Italian 
children  learn  Italian  and  English;  many  orphans  of  im 
migrants  are  fed,  clothed,  lodged  and  educated,  and  several 
hundred  Italian  immigrants  yearly  receive  help  of  essen 
tial  service. 

The  conditions  in  the  smaller  cities  and  towns  are,  as 
a  rule,  more  favorable  for  the  quick  advance  and  inde 
pendence  of  the  immigrant  colonists,  for  whom  opportun 
ities  are  open  as  artisans,  small  shopkeepers  and  cultivators 
of  market  gardens  or  outlying  farms.  There  is_no^_evjz, 
dence  in  these  communities  of  any  aversion  to  agricultural 
occupations,  for  most  of  the  new  comers  are  eager  to  seek 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

employment  upon  the  suburban  truck  farms,  andjo  un- 
dertake  farming  on  the  "  half  share  "  system,  or  bv  pur 
chase  of  land  when  they  are  able  t.n  (]^  so 

This  is  signally  evident  in  the  notable  Italian  colony  at 
Bryan,  Texas,  which  is  of  peculiar  interest  as  an  object 
lesson  for  the  instruction  and  advantage  of  the  mass  of 
Italian  immigrants  to  this  country.  Here  a  settlement 
of  Sicilians,  numbering  about  twenty-four  hundred,  has 
been  prospering  for  several  years.  The  families  are  spread 
over  the  neighborhood  to  a  distance  of  eighteen  miles  from 
the  town,  and  are,  for  the  most  part,  proprietors  of  lands 
chiefly  sown  with  Indian  corn  and  cotton. 

The  families  that  rent  lands  generally  pay  $5.00  a  year 
per  acre,  and  it  is  reported  by  Signor  Eossi  that  the  fam 
ilies  of  the  owners  and  tenants  save  from  $100  to  $1,000 
yearly,  according  as  they  are  more  or  less  numerous  and 
economical,  and  as  the  crops  are  more  or  less  abundant. 
The  greater  part  of  these  families  came  originally  from 
Trapani  in  the  neighborhood  of  Palermo,  and  in  point  of 
industry,  thrift,  good  conduct  and  prosperity,  they  need 
not  shun  comparison  with  the  immigrants  from  any  other 
part  of  Italy  or  from  any  other  country.  Two  years  ago 
the  parish  priest  of  Bryan  raised,  in  a  few  days,  the  con 
tribution  of  $1,100  from  his  parishioners  to  pay  for  the 
construction  of  the  local  Catholic  church,  now  ornamented 
with  altar  cloths  embroidered  in  gold  and  other  costly 
embellishments.  All  who  came  to  greet  Signor  Eossi  last 


The  Italian  in  America 

year  at  the  home  of  the  parish  priest  gave  evidence  of  their 
happy  living  and  good  prospects. 

All  the  chief  food  supplies  are  here  abundant  and  cheap, 
meat  selling  at  five  cents  a  pound.  Taxation  was  said  to 
be  exceedingly  light.  The  climate  was  judged  to  be  fully 
as  good  as  that  of  Sicily.  There  is  much  fertile  land  to 
be  obtained  for  cultivation,  and  the  owners  give  the  use 
of  the  land  without  charge  for  twQ*^wjsta  the  farmer 
who  clears  it.  The  settlers  cut  downV  Ikes?  selling 
the  wood  at  $2.00  per  cord,  and  harveW Indian  corn  in 
the  first  year  and  cotton  in  the  second. 

In  others  of  the  small  Texas  towns  the  experie^atof 
Italian  colonization  in  Bryan  has  been  substantially  du 
plicated,  and  the  recent  inspection  of  Signor  Eossi  has 
demonstrated  that  there  is  not  a  single  Jjj^Lor  town  in 
Texas  that  has  received  immigration  fronWmly  in  which 
the  newcomers  are  not  as  a  body  thrifty  and  compara 
tively  well-to-do.  The  like  is  reported  of  the  Italian  set- 
ers  injialt  Tifllifi  nitijj  QT1/lj  fliftifr  crossing-  the  Sierlhs.  the 
exhibitpf  Italian  prosperity  in  the  [MCalif  ornian  cities 

J-owns  is  st.fl]  mnrft  flnta worthy.    Doubtless  other  parts 

of  our  country  will  prove  as  attractive  to  Italian  immi 
gration,  and  the  opportunities  for  money  making  existing 
to-day  in  other  sections  may  be  even  greater,  as  the  most 
pressing  demand  for  labor  in  this  ffreat  Pacific  coast  state 
^continues  only^  for  a.  part  o^Jh^ear^Jn  the  sgagonjrf 
harvest;  but! Italian  settlement  in  this  state  began  with 

90 


Italian  Settlement  in  American  Cities 

the  earliest  period  of  any  considerable  immigration,  and  ( 
the  progress  attained  is  naturally  more  pronounced  and 
gratifying  to  the  pride  of  the  settlers.) 

~f*k  \ 

fin  Los  Angeles  and  the  neighborhood  there  are  now 
about  four  thousand  Italians,  chiefly  coming  to  this 
country  from  Northern  Italy,  principally  occupied  as  mer-  • 
chants  and  farmers,  and  Signor  Eossi  reports  that  all  are 
industrious.  "  Not  a  few,"  he  says,"  are  rich  owners  of 
houses,  farms  and  business  properties.^. 

The  Italians  in  San  Francisco  are  no  less  thrifty.  In 
the  neighborhood  of  the  city  there  are  about  two  hundre~ 
,and  fifty  truck  farms  cultivated  by  Italian  owners,  chiefly 
Genoese,  as  Signor  Eossi  observes,  "who  obtain  the 
manure  from  the  stables  in  the  city  gratis  and  transform 
into  fertile  lands  the  original  sand  dunes."  In  this  citv. 
also  there  is  the  noteworthy  establishment  of  the  Cali 
fornia  Fruit  (growers7  Association,  in  wnichare  employed 
several  hundred  Italians,  chiefly  women,  in  the  canning1 
of  asparagus,  apricots  and  ot^er  vegetables  and  fruit. 
These  employees  work  by  the  day,  earning  daily  wages 
oCfrom  75  cents  to  $2.0(K_  The  general  superintendent 
of  the  association  is  an  Italian,  Signor  Marco  J.  Fontana, 
"an  interesting  type  of  the  self-made  man,"  as  Signor 
Eossi  has  lately  remarked.  There  is,  however,  no  desire 
on  the  part  of  the  leading  Italians  of  the  city  to  induce 
any  influx  of  immigration  to  seek  employment  within  the 
city  limits,  as  the  organized  labor  unions  practically  con- 

91 


The  Italian  in  "America 

r 

itrol  the  trades  and  are  jealous  of  any  intrusion  of  non 
union  labQ.r,  and  the  directors  of  the  Royal  Italian 
Emigration  Department  a.Hvjsft  foe  i'TmT)igr^|]|^  tn  a.vruVl 
as  far  as  practicable  any  conflict  with  American  labor 
unionsTj  Instead  of  promoting  immigration  in  the  face 
of"such  antagonism,  as  Signor  Rossi  shrewdly  observes, 
u  It  is  better  to  allow  it  to  develop  slowly  and  spon- 
\^taneously,  as  it  has  up  to  the  present  time." 

Outside  of  the  famous  vineyards,  described  in  a  f  ol 
io  winff  chapter,  perhaps  the  most  flourishing  establishment. 

/  .nf  Tt.fl.1jp.ng  in  Calif  ornia  is  at  San  Jose,  the  principal  centre 


frpit.  production  of  the  Santa  Clara  valley.  |  Sere 
from  three  to  four  thousand  Italians  are  profitably  occu 
pied  as  laborers,  truck  farmers  and  workers  in  the  fruit- 
canning  factories.  In  the  beautiful  valley  surrounding 
the  city  not  less  than  two  hundred  and  fijjty  Italians  are 
reported  to  be  owners  of  small  fruit  farmsj 
l^The  comparative  progress  and  condition  of  the  Italians 
in  the  American  cities  and  towns  in  which  openings  for 
employment  in  market-gardening,  fruit  and  vegetable 
handling  and  closely  allied  occupations  are  most  abundant, 
clearly  indicate  the  lines  of  advance  to  be  preferred  by 

Italian  immigrants  to  this  country! 

'~-~*  ELIOT  LOKD. 


92 


CHAPTEE  Y 

r- 
IN    COMPETITION    AND    ASSOCIATION 

The  capacity  of  the  Italian  immigrant  to  make  headway 
in  this  hustling  country  often  against  the  keenest  compe 
tition  has  been  abundantly  demonstrated.  Unless  he  is 
grossly  misplaced  and  handicapped,  he  will  contrive  to 
earn  a  living  and  save  money  with  which  to  better  his 
condition.  Even  the  poorest  and  most  dependent  un 
skilled  laborer  saved  some  money,  as  a  rule,  in  the  early 
years  of  immigration  when  the  labor  conditions  of  this 
country  were  little  known  to  the  mass  of  Italians,  and  an 
immigrant  was  likely  to  come  over  under  contract  with 
some  padrone. 

If  the  padrone  acted  as  a  manufacturer's  or  contractor's 
agent,  he  would  contrive  to  get  commissions  and  other 
profits  both  from  the  buyer  and  the  seller  of  labor  at  the 
expense  of  the  immigrants,  for  all  these  exactions  were 
deducted,  in  the  long  run,  from  the  market  rates  for 
labor.  If  the  padrone  was  only  a  greedy  speculator,  as 
was  often  the  case,  he  would  pay  transportation  expenses 
and  as  little  more  as  he  could  possibly  bargain  for,  and 
use  or  sell  the  labor  in  ways  most  profitable  to  himself. 

93 


The  Italian  in  America 

The  most  outrageous  impositions  were  through  the  se 
curing  of  children  as  servitors  of  the  padrone  until  this, 
as  well  as  the  contract  labor  practice,  was  squelched  by 
the  laws  and  the  vigilance  of  prosecution. 

Yet  even  under  these _in tolerable  exactions,  the  poorest 
immigrants  continued  to  struggle  along  and  reach  inde 
pendence  sooner  or  later.  Many  of  the  most  prospering 
and  worthy  Italian- American  citizens  to-day  began  their 
life  in  this  country  as  bootblacks,  newsboys  or  strolling 
musicians  in  the  grip  of  padrones.  This  distressful  ex 
perience  is  no  longer  imposed — or,  if  continued,  the  viola 
tion  of  law  is  covert  and  rare.  The  padrone  now  survives 
only  in  the  tolerable  form  of  an  employment  agent  and 
boarcling-house  keeper,  and  his  chances  of  profit  are  van- 
ishing  yearly  with  the  increasing  information  and  self- 
reliance  of  the  immigrant  as  the  numbers  of  his  country 
men  increase  in  this  country. 

There  can  be  no  possible  question  that  the  average  con 
dition  and  earnings  of  the  common  unskilled  Italian  laborer 
are  materially  better  in  this  country  to-day  than  they 
were  twenty  years  ago.  'This  advance  is  due  to  his  better 
guidance  and  equipment  for  competition,  and  it  is  prac 
tically  certain  that  the  market  value  of  his  labor  will 
continue  to  rise  with  the  rising  appreciation  of  his  capacity 
and  the  growing  reluctance  of  competing  laborers  to  do 
the  crudest,  most  fatiguing  and  least  profitable  work. 
In  view  of  his  present  employment  in  road  making,  rail- 

94 


In  Competition  and  Association 

way  grading,  track  laying,  cargo  handling  and  other 
public  and  private  works,  it  is  not  likely  that  he  ho,s  any 
competition  to  fear. 

In  more  advanced  industrial  employment  his  competing 
capacity  is  no  less  evident.  In  some  occupations  it  has 
been  strained  to  excess  through  his  eagerness  to  earn 
money,  or  under  the  pressure  of  actual  want.  It  may  be 
unfortunate  for  him  if  the  anticipation  of  the  Industrial 
Commission  of  1901  is  realized,  "  that  the  future  clothing 
workers  of  the  country  are  not  likely  to  be  the  Jews  but 
the  Italians."  Yet  it  is  certainly  remarkable  that  the 
Italian  peasants  who  come  to  this  country  so  soon  learn 
to  turn  their  hands  to  the  making  of  clothing  and  other 
manufactures  in  which  they  have  had  no  prior  experience. 
The  number  of  immigrants  formally  entered  as  "  tailors  " 
is  assuredly  very  much  less  than  the  number  engaged  in 
the  making  of  clothing  in  our  American  cities. 

This  facility  is  explained  in  the  report  of  the  Industrial 
Commission,  no  doubt  correctly.  "  The  Itajjg.Ti.,  like  the 
Jew,  has  a  very  elastic  character.  He  can  easily  change 
habits  and  modes  of  work  and  adapt  himself  to  differen  t 
conditions  i  he  is  energfttin  and  t]]yjff,yf  and  wilL work 

T->ft.T»fl    wjfrVi    littlp.   rftfyn WI    f rvr   ti^1^   Tt \lPlb6r  of  lioiiT'g    •'    It  is 

' 

quite  usual  for  an  Italian  cloak-maker,  like  the  Jew,  after 
he  has  worked  10  hours  in  the  shops  with  his  wife,  to  take 
a  bundle  of  work  home  at  night.  But,  unlike  the  Jew,  he 
not  only  does  the  work  at  home  himself,  but  he  is  assisted 

95 


The  Italian  in  America 

by  the  women  in  his  family,  and  often  leaves  a  part  of 
the  work  for  them  to  do  daring  the  day." 

"If  the  Italian  and  the  Pole  are  compared,  it  will  be 
found  that  it  is  the  Polish  women  who  enter  the  sewing 
trade,  whereas  the  former  Polish  farmer  clings  to  com 
mon  work  requiring  hard  labor.  The  Italian  is  able  on 
account  of  his  national  characteristics,  artistic  ability,  etc., 
to  control  such  work  as  the  manufacture  of  clothing,  silk 
weaving,  hat  making  and  other  trades  where  taste  and  a 
fine  sense  of  touch  are  essential  for  a  successful  perform 
ance  of  the  work.  The  Polish  farmer  can  successfully 
compete  m  factory  work  where  hard  automatic  labor  is 
necessary  i..but_the  Italian  dislikes  mechanical  work  and 
is_better  adapted  to  diversified  pursuits  where  manipula 
tion  is  required.  "1 

'  i  Notwithstanding  the  competing  power  of  Polish 
women  "  (due  to  their  unequalled  endurance),  "  they  can 
probably  be  excelled  by  Italian  women.  "While  a  great 
many  Polish  women  have  entered  the  trade,  they  have 
not  yet  developed  great  speed  nor  been  able  to  work  in 
factories  producing  the  best  grades  of  work,  while  Italian 
women  are  almost  perfect  imitators.  The  Italian  women 
can  develop  speed  and  can  work  with  skill.  Like  the 
Poles,  they  also  are  obedient  to  orders." 

In  the  record  of  the  distribution  of  Italian  immigrants 
by  trades  and  industries  for  the  fiscal  year  ending  June 
30,  1903,  it  is  noteworthy  that  the  immigrant  masons 


In  Competition  and  Association 

outnumber  the  artisans  attached  to  any  other  single  in 
dustry  or  trade.  4,226  entered  in  this  year,  and  the  allied 
branch  of  stonecutters  contributed  an  additional  978.  This 
is  a  significant  exhibit  of  the  demand  in  this  country  for 
workers  in  occupations  in  which  the  Italian  is  an  acknowl 
edged  expert.  It  is  unquestionable  that  there  would  be 
a  much  greater  influx  of  these  valuable  artisans,  if  avail- 

were  better  determined 


and  reported,  and  if  the  antagonism  of  the  labor  unions 
to  any  outside  competition  was  not  so  pronounced.  Ex- 
pertness  in  quarrying  and  stone  cutting,  as  well  as  in 
plastering  and  moulding,  has  been  a  transmitted  acquire 
ment  for  more  than  two  thousand  years  in  Italy,  and  the 
skilled  Italian  workman  in  these  lines  of  industry,  ascend 
ing  to  the  pinnacle  of  the  fine  arts  of  sculpture  and  cameo 
catting,  dreads  no  competition.  This  influx  is  not  now 
artificially  stimulated  in  any  way  through  the  agency  of 
contractors,  and  its  distribution  is  now  so  widespread  and 
scattering  that  it  does  not  appear  to  arouse  any  special 
antagonism. 

Immigrant  barbers  and  hair-dressers  come  next  to  the 
masons  in  numbers  according  to  the  same  year's  record, 
showing  a  total  of  4,145.  Their  competence  and  conduct 
are  certainly  not  below  the  average  in  this  country  as 
the  multiplication  of  their  shops  bears  witness,  even  in 
quarters  where  there  are  few  if  any  Italian  customers. 
Tailors  stand  third  in  the  same  list,  numbering  3,464,  and 

97 


The  Italian  in  America 

carpenters  and  joiners  make  a  close  fourth  with  a  total 
of  2,979.  Italian  cabinet  makers,  picture-frame  joiners 
and  gilders  and  other  artistic  wood  workers  are  often 
very  deft,  and  the  average  workman  is  likely  to  hold  his 
own  in  any  ordinary  competition. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  a  contribution  in  this  single 
year  of  146  "  sculptors  and  artists  "  and  305  "  musicians," 
showing  that  the  fine  arts  in  this  country  are  absorbing 
an  increasing  supply  of  Italian  talent  or  genius.  The 
handiwork  of  naturalized  Italians  as  well  as  of  their  chil 
dren  born  in  this  country  may  be  seen  in  pictures  and 
statuary  and  mural  decorations  adorning  many  fine  resi 
dences  in  America.  Although  the  great  mass  of  the 
immigrants  has  been  made  up  of  the  poor,  ill-educated, 
cafoni  and  farm  laborers,  it  is  noteworthy  how  surely  the 
innate  artistic  powers  of  this  stock  come  to  light  and 
expand  in  the  attainments  of  their  children  under  the 
culturing  influences  of  our  schools  of  design. 

The  professional  and  business  men  who  have  come  to 
this  country  from  Italy  and  those  who  have  been  reared 
here  of  Italian  parentage  are  not,  as  yet,  suflicient  in 
number  to  make  any  considerable  collective  impress,  ex 
cept  in  a  few  cities  like  New  York  and  San  Francisco,  but 
their  talents  and  character  and  the  innate  courtesy  that 
marks  their  people  from  peasant  to  sovereign  have  already 
won  deserved  recognition  and  cordial  acceptance  for  them 
as  a  fine  type  of  Americans.  JOHN  J.  D.  TRENOB. 

98 


CHAPTER  YI 

IN   THE   MINING   FIELDS 

The  number  of  Italian  immigrants  giving  their  occupa 
tion  as  miners,  as  reported  in  the  official  returns,  is  by  no 
means  an  accurate  gauge  of  the  influx  into  our  mining 
fields,  for  the  greater  part  of  the  workers  in  the  coal  fields, 
at  least,  are  not  trained  miners,  but  are  drawn  from  the 
ranks  of  common  laborers  who  are  employed  in  surface 
work  of  the  simplest  kinds,  where  their  lack  of  experience 
is  not  a  final  disqualification. 

The  record  of  the  entry  of  Italian  "  miners,"  however, 
shows  clearly  enough  the  beginning  of  any  considerable 
intrusion  into  our  coal-mining  fields.  From  1875  to  1880 
inclusive  the  average  yearly  entry  of  Italian  immigrant 
miners  was  only  37.  In  1881  this  average  was  nearly 
quadrupled,  and  in  the  following  year  the  number  enter 
ing  was  nearly  ten  times  the  former  average.  This  influx 
continued  during  the  next  ten  years  without  materially 
increasing  the  record  of  1882  except  in  1889,  when  the 
unprecedented  number  of  767  is  recorded.  In  the  closing 
years  of  the  decade  ending  with  1900  the  average  rose 
materially,  the  influx  reaching  863  in  1899  and  1,260  in 

99 


The  Italian  in  America 

1900.  Three  years  later  the  record  for  the  year  was  2,520, 
showing  a  still  more  noteworthy  increase.  By  far  the 
greater  part  of  this  immigration  came  from  Northern 
Italy  to  our  mining  fields,  the  proportion  in  1899  being 
more  than  7  to  1  from  Southern  Italy,  and  in  1900  being 
almost  exactly  like  that  of  the  previous  year. 

Presumably  most  of  the  immigrants  recording  them 
selves  as  miners  have  had  some  previous  training,  at  least, 
in  mining  work  at  home,  and  the  fact  will  not  be  disputed 
that  many  Italians  included  in  the  record  lists  are  expert 
operators,  but,  as  before  noted,  these  workmen  constitute 
only  a  fraction  of  the  number  seeking  employment  in  the 
coal  fields. 

Such  employment,  especially  in  the  anthracite  fields, 
has  been  one  of  the  least  desirable  and  satisfactory  occu- 
pations  of  the  Italian  in  this  country.  Mining  is  arduous 
and  dangerous  at  best,  and  it  has  been  prosecuted  in  our 
coal  fields  under  lax  mining  laws,  hampered  and  unsound 
administration  and  labor  conditions  often  intolerable.  The 
entry  of  the  Italians  into  the  mining  fields  of  this  country 
corresponded  closely  with  the  introduction  of  machines 
for  coal  mining. 

In  the  words  of  the  Eeport  of  the  Illinois  Bureau  of 
Labor  Statistics  for  1888:  "  A  mining  machine  not  only 
reverses  the  customary  methods  of  work  but  changes 
equally  the  system  of  wages.  The  coal  miner  proper  was 
accustomed  to  take  his  own  tools  into  the  pit  and  to 

100 


In  the  Mining' 

deliver  from  the  wall  of  mineral  before  him  certain  tons 
of  coal  ready  every  morning  for  a  certain  sum  per  ton. 
He  mined,  drilled,  blasted  and  loaded  his  own  coal,  tim 
bered  his  own  roof,  took  care  of  his  own  tools,  and  was 
responsible  mainly  to  himself  for  his  personal  safety  in 
the  amount  of  his  output." 

"In  the  machine  mine  some  seven  or  eight  men  are 
required  to  perform  these  functions.  In  the  mine,  as  in 
the  mill,  the  machine  has  become  the  master  and  the  men 
are  its  servitors.  The  operator  and  the  mechanism  simply 
direct  its  energies  when  the  motive  power  is  given  to  it, 
and  the  coal  is  under  cut  or  mined.  A  blaster  follows 
with  tools  and  explosives,  loosening  the  mass ;  the  loaders 
reduce  it  and  shovel  it  into  pit  cars;  the  timber  men  fol 
low  and  prop  the  roof  which  no  longer  has  the  mineral  to 
rest  upon.  Labor  is  assisted  in  every  process  and  a 
machinist  is  retained  for  repairs.  Each  one  does  his  own 
certain  portion  of  the  work  and  no  more,  and  doubtless 
does  it  better  as  well  as  faster  by  reason  of  the  greater 
skill  thus  acquired.  Herein  lies  the  chief  value  of  the  ma 
chine  to  the  mine  owner.  It  relieves  him  for  the  most 
part  of  skilled  labor  and  of  all  the  restraint  which  that 
implies.  It  opens  to  him  the  whole  labor  market  from 
which  to  recruit  his  force;  it  enables  him  to  concentrate 
the  work  of  the  mine  at  given  points,  and  it  admits  of 
the  graduation  of  wages  to  specific  work  and  of  the  pay 
ment  of  wages  by  the  day." 

101 


The  Italian  in  America 

"  The  results  of  this  introduction  of  machinery  consist 
not  only  in  the  greater  execution  of  the  machine,  but 
in  the  subdivision  of  labor  which  it  involves,  and  the 
greater  per  capita  efficiency  of  the  force  thus  secured. 
The  gain  is  consequently  to  the  employer  rather  than  to 
the  men.  The  mining  machine  is,  in  fact,  the  natural 
enemy  of  the  coal-miner:  it  destroys  the  value  of  his  skill 
and  experience,  obliterates  his  trade,  and  reduces  him  to 
the  rank  of  a  common  laborer  or  machine  driver  if  he 
remains  where  he  is." 

Statistics  taken  from  average  mining  establishments 
show  that  the  expert  cutters  and  blasters  who  take  the 
places  of  the  miners  in  a  hand  mine — not  exceeding  eight 
per  cent,  of  the  total  number  employed  in  a  machine  mine 
— receive  higher  wages  per  day  than  the  miners  dis 
placed.  It  is  reckoned  that  this  increase  amounts  to  an 
advance  of  about  22$  in  w^ages,  but  the  certain  imme 
diate  effect  of  the  introduction  of  machines  in  mining  is 
to  reduce  very  greatly  the  number  of  skilled  miners  form 
erly  employed,  displacing,  on  the  average,  60$  of  the 
total  number  formerly  engaged  in  the  hand  mines. 

It  is  commonly  reckoned  that  the  entry  of  the  workers 
from  Southern  Europe  into  our  coal-mining  fields  dis 
placed  a  very  large  proportion  of  the  former  workers, 
who  were  almost  all  English-speaking  miners.  Examina 
tion  of  the  records  shows  that  this  conclusion  is  not  fully 
justified.  There  is  only  a  very  trivial  difference  in  num- 

102 


In  the  Mining  Fields 

bers,  for  example,  between  the  foreign-born  English-speak 
ing  miners  employed  in  the  entire  anthracite  coal  region 
in  1900  and  the  force  employed  in  1880  before  the  advent 
of  the  mass  of  the  immigrants  from  Southern  Europe  en 
gaged  in  coal  mining.  But  it  is  undoubtedly  true  that 
the  natural  increase  in  the  number  of  the  foreign-born 
English-speaking  miners  has  been  almost  completely 
checked,  and  an  actual  loss  in  numbers  is  shown  if  the 
record  of  1890  is  compared  with  that  of  the  later  year, 
1900.  Of  the  new  elements  which  have  entered  this  coal 
field  and  forestalled  the  increase  of  the  English-speaking 
miners,  the  Lithuanians,  Slovaks  and  Poles  constitute  by 
far  the  greater  part. 

The  number  of  Italians  in  the  entire  anthracite  region 
of  Pennsylvania  in  1900 — Carbon,  Columbia,  Dauphin, 
Lackawanna,  Luzerne,  Northumberland,  Schuylkill  and 
Susquehanna  counties — is  reckoned  by  Frank  Julian Warne 
(uThe  Slav  Invasion,"  p.  51)  at  only  9,958,  or  hardly  more 
than  one-twentieth  of  the  total  foreign  born  in  this  region, 
so  that  the  Italian  immigrant,  at  least,  can  scarcely  be 
charged  with  any  considerable  responsibility  for  the  de 
pression  of  the  standard  of  living  in  that  section  at  large. 

One  main  objection  to  the  opening  afforded  for  the 
employment  of  Italians  in  these  fields  is  that  it  has  drawn 
very  little  comparatively  from  the  number  of  skilled  min 
ers,  possibly  available  in  Italy,  by  far  the  larger  propor 
tion  beinff  made  up  of  the  ordinary  unskilled  laborers 

103 


The  Italian  in  America 

employed  in  surface  work  as  helpers  and  slate  pickers . 
This  crude  employment  is  particularly  disadvantageous  in 
tha^jj^pfms  no  considerable  prospect  of  progress  and  no 
training  in  the  expert  branches  of  mining  for  which  rela 
tively  hifyh  pay  ipt  c*ar\p,&(\&c\  The  experts  in  the  mines 
have  contrived  to  guard  their  positions  strictly  and  jeal 
ously  through  the  organization  of  miners'  unions  limiting 
the  numbers  of  those  available  for  service,  and  requiring 
long  terms  of  apprenticeship.  Moreover,  the  work  in 
these  fields  for  most  employees  has  been  more  or  less  un 
certain  and  irregular,  continuing  for  a  limited  part  of  the 
year  only,  and  enforcing  periods  of  idleness  and  consequent 
waste  of  earnings. 

It  is  further  notable  that  the  percentage  of  accidents 
among  the  inexperienced  Italian  laborers  thus  employed 
is  exceptionally  high,  although  they  are  not  engaged,  as 
a  rule,  in  the  most  dangerous  tasks  of  underground  min 
ing.  The  Slavs  have  been  notoriously  reckless,  but  the 
Italians  do  not  appear  to  be  chargeable  with  any  lack  of 
precaution  except  the  imprudence  necessarily  resulting 
from  their  ignorance  of  the  attendant  risks.  Yet  in  spite 
of  a  general  caution,  which  has  been  sneeringly  charged 
to  them  as  evidence  of  timidity,  it  is  unquestionably  the 
fact  that  the  Italian  laborers  have  suffered  as  much  as 
any,  proportionately,  from  accidents  in  the  fields. 

There  is  further  a  noted  jealousy  on  the  part  of  the 
other  miners,  holding  aloof  as  a  body  from  the  more  re- 

104 


In  the  Mining  Fields 

cent  immigrants,  and  practically  constraining  the  Italians 
as  well  as  the  Slavs  to  cluster  together  in  settlements  ex 
ceedingly  unfavorable  to  their  assimilation  and  progress. 
It  is  unfortunately  true  also  that  there  has  been  an  appar 
ent  jangling  and  bitterness  between  the  Slavs  and  Italians 
themselves,  as  well  as  among  the  different  divisions  of 
the  Slavic  and  other  races  that  have  entered  the  fields. 
This  dissension  has  been  overcome  in  large  measure  of 
late  years  through  the  length  of  association  in  the  fields, 
and  particularly  by  the  efforts  of  the  intelligent  directors 
of  the  American  Federation  of  Labor  to  promote  a  better 
concord  and  co-operation  for  the  common  protection  and 
advancement.  Nevertheless,  during  the  twenty  years 
closing  the  last  century,  during  which  the  influx  of  immi 
gration  from  Southern  Europe  first  began  and  continued 
in  increasing  numbers,  the  social  condition  of  these  immi 
grants  in  the  fields  has  been  little  short  of  deplorable. 

As  the  Italians  have  been  relatively  inconsiderable  in 
number,  they  have  escaped  the  brunt  of  the  antagonism 
which  has  been  directed  against  the  influx  from  Austria- 
Hungary  and  Russia,  termed  by  a  recent  writer,  Frank 
Julian  Warne,  "The  Slav  Invasion."  The  Slavs  have 
been  accused  of  flocking  in  recklessly,  regardless  of  any 
existing  standard  of  wages  or  effort  for  its  maintenance 
and  accepting  any  rate  of  pay  which  would  enable  them 
to  earn  the  barest  livelihood.  As  so  large  a  proportion 
of  them  have  been  unmarried  men,  and  their  standard  of 

105 


The  Italian  in  America 

living  has  been  so  low  compared  with  that  maintained  and 
demanded  by  the  English  speaking  miners,  there  can  be 
no  question  that  the  competition  thus  enforced  has  been 
exceedingly  severe  and  detrimental  to  the  average  social 
condition  of  the  mass  of  workmen  in  the  mining  fields. 

It  was  to  be  expected,  however,  that  the  introduction  of 
machines,  with  its  inevitable  decrease  of  the  number  of 
experts  required  for  mine  operation,  would  tend  at  the 
outset  inevitably  to  the  lowering  of  wages  and  social  con 
ditions.  This  tendency  has  been  offset  in  a  measure 
through  the  general  prosperity  and  progress  of  the  coun 
try,  greatly  extending  the  demand  for  the  coal  product 
of  the  fields,  and  thereby  extending  the  demand  for  labor 
employed  in  production.  It  is  certain  that  the  advance 
due  to  this  economic  condition  has  already  been  material, 
and  the  rate  of  wages  has  further  been  maintained  and 
advanced  through  the  labor  union  organizations  arraying 
themselves  in  opposition  to  the  pressure  of  capital  seeking 
the  cheapest  labor  in  the  market  and  enforcing  the  allow 
ance  of  better  pay,  more  just  regulations  and  shorter  hours 
for  the  employees.  At  the  present  time  it  is  unquestionable 
that  the  condition  of  the  laborers  in  the  mining  fields  of 
Pennsylvania,  "West  Virginia  and  other  states  east  of  the 
Mississippi  has  been  very  materially  bettered  through  their 
perfected  organization  and  the  extraordinary  industrial 
progress  of  the  country  at  large.  There  is  relief,  too, 
from  the  growing  disposition  of  the  sons  of  the  miners  to 

106 


In  the  Mining  Fields 

enter  other  occupations.  The  "brightest  Irish  boys  in 
the  anthracite  coal  fields,"  wrote  an  experienced  observer 
in  "The  Outlook,"  August  5, 1899,  u  one  of  the  operators 
told  me,  do  not  work  in  the  mines,  but  go  on  the  rail 
roads  or  into  stores  or  teach  school."  Yet,  at  best,  the 
prospects  open  for  Italian  labor  in  these  fields  are  hazard 
ous  and  relatively  undesirable,  and  the  mass  of  Italians  at 
least  should  be  persistently  advised  to  seek  for  employ 
ment  along  more  profitable  lines,  for  which  they  are  far 
better  adapted  by  natural  taste  and  former  training. 

In  the  mining  fields  west  of  the  Mississippi  the  labor 
and  social  conditions  have  commonly  been  much  more 
satisfactory,  and  the  openings  for  the  extension  of  Italian 
labor  are  undoubtedly  far  more  promising.  This  has 
lately  been  shown  authoritatively  in  the  report  of  the  visit 
ing  inspector  of  the  Koyal  Immigration  Department, 
Signor  Eossi.  The  reported  conditions  in  Indian  Terri 
tory,  to  which  many  Italian  miners  as  well  as  farm  work 
ers  have  been  strongly  attracted  in  recent  years,  are  with 
out  exception  favorable  for  contented  and  prosperous 
Italian  employment. 

According  to  figures  furnished  by  leading  residents,  the 
number  of  Italians,  including  women  and  children  now 
living  in  the  mining  fields  in  Indian  Territory,  is  as  fol 
lows: 


107 


The  Italian  in  America 

In  McAlister  200 

In  Krebs   2,000 

In  Colgate   1,500 

In  Philips  500 

In  Archibald    30 

In  Alderson  500 

In  Hartshorne 400 

Other  localities 500 

South  McAlister  is  particularly  noted  in  the  inspector's 
report  as  a  small  city  of  about  7,000  inhabitants  that  has 
developed  with  wonderful  rapidity,  thanks  to  the  new  and 
rich  coal  mines  recently  discovered  in  the  neighborhood. 
The  richest  and  most  intelligent  Italians  located  here  are 
said  to  be  the  Fassino  Brothers,  the  Piedmontese  pro 
prietors  of  a  macaroni  factory  and  of  a  carriage  and 
wagon  warehouse.  One  of  the  brothers  informed  the 
inspector  that  many  Italian  miners  had  come  into  the 
territory  within  the  last  few  years  since  the  discovery  of 
new  coal  mines  and  that  all  were  doing  very  well.  The 
opportunity  to  acquire  land  was  commonly  very  attract- 
tive.  The  price  ranged  from  two  and  three  to  fifteen 
dollars  per  acre.  Signor  Fassino  told  the  inspector  that 
he  had  already  invested  sixty  thousand  dollars  in  land, 
and  that,  if  he  had  more  money  to  spare,  he  would  buy  still 
more,  being  certain  that  in  three  years  he  would  triple  his 
capital.  The  Fassino  Brothers  were  at  the  start  miners. 
They  engaged  in  business  as  soon  as  they  had  saved  some 
money,  and  had  been  residing  in  the  territory  for  many 
years  and  assisting  in  the  development  of  the  country. 

108 


In  the  Mining  Fields 

About  two  hundred  Piedmontese  miners  were  living  at 
McAlister  in  small  wooden  houses.  They  told  the  inspec 
tor  that  they  earned  "  very  good  wages,"  $2.56  for  a  day 
of  eight  hours,  and  many  at  the  mines  were  doing  piece 
work  by  preference.  Their  only  complaint  was  the  pro 
hibition  against  alcoholic  drinks.  The  Piedmontese  told 
the  inspector  that  the  work  in  the  mines  was  necessarily 
fatiguing,  and  that  they  were  obliged  frequently  to  labor 
in  very  hot  galleries  where  the  air  was  vitiated  by  the 
gas  coming  from  the  coal  seams.  When  they  went  out 
at  night  they  "  needed  something  to  drink  stronger  than 
water  in  order  to  catch  their  breath."  One  miner  said: 
( (  I  worked  for  years  in  Asia  Minor  ;  notwithstanding 
that  the  Koran  strictly  forbids  to  Mohammedans  the  use 
of  spirituous  drinks,  the  Turks  allowed  us  Christians  to 
drink  wine,  beer  and  other  liquors  at  our  pleasure." 
Signor  Rossi  notes  as  a  curious  circumstance  in  view  of 
the  prohibition  of  the  use  of  any  kind  of  alcoholic  drinks 
in  the  Territory  that  Fernet  is  admitted  as  a  febrifuge  and 
that  a  large  amount  of  this  liquor  is  consumed. 

At  Krebs  the  inspector  found  about  two  thousand  Ital 
ians  working,  also  largely  Piedmontese.  On  account  of 
the  temporary  restriction  of  business  in  the  year  of  the 
Presidential  Election,  the  miners  here  did  not  have  work 
for  the  entire  week,  "but,  nevertheless,  if  they  worked 
four  or  five  days  out  of  the  six,  the  miners  did  well,  because 
almost  all  do  piece  work,  and  there  are  those  who  earn 

109 


The  Italian  in  America 

every  two  weeks.  'I  will  wager,'  said  a  well-known 
fellow  of  the  place,  '  that  here  at  Krebs  there  are  at  least 
fifty  thousand  dollars  buried  under  ground;  the  work 
men  are  justty  afraid  of  the  so-called  bankers  and  prefer 
to  hide  their  money. ' '  In  a  general  store  in  the  town 
the  inspector  saw  affixed  to  the  wall  a  list  of  seven  thou 
sand  francs  that  an  Italian  priest  had  collected  for  the 
construction  of  a  new  church  at  Castigleone  di  Carovilli. 
This  money  was  contributed  by  the  immigrants  from 
that  place  who  are  working  at  Krebs,  at  Brookside  in 
Colorado  and  at  Hubbard  in  Ohio.  The  best  store  in 
Krebs  was  kept  by  a  Sicilian  from  Sciacca.  Seeing  that 
this  store  was  prospering,  some  six  or  seven  other  Italian 
stores  were  opened,  a  little  too  many,  the  inspector 
thought,  for  Krebs. 

Some  of  the  miners  cultivated  vegetables  in  the  garden 
patches,  enclosing  their  little  wooden  houses,  but  this  diver 
sion  was  not  common,  for  the  miners  generally  had  no 
inclination  for  farming  nor  even  for  truck  gardening.  This 
is  regretted  by  the  inspector,  who  regards  the  Indian 
Territory  as  one  of  the  sections  in  North  America  that 
should  be  taken  into  serious  consideration  by  those  in 
search  of  land  for  cultivation.  In  its  valleys  every  prod 
uct  of  the  temperate  zone  may  be  raised  readily,  and  on 
the  hills  vines  will  surely  flourish,  as  a  successful  experi 
ment  by  an  Italian  has  already  proved. 

At  Thurber  in  Texas,  Signor  Eossi  visited  the  five  well- 
no 


In  the  Mining  Fields 

developed  coal  mines  of  the  Texas  and  Pacific  Coal  Com 
pany  in  which  about  eight  hundred  miners  of  various 
nationalities  were  at  work.  More  than  one-third  of  these 
were  Italians.  The  local  Italian  colony  here  numbers 
about  five  hundred,  including  the  women  and  children. 
It  has  a  school  and  Catholic  church  in  charge  of  a  Sicilian 
priest.  Its  workmen  are  for  the  greater  part  Venetians, 
Piedmontese  and  Modenese. 

Thurber  has  now  about  five  thousand  inhabitants,  and 
is  a  large  village  of  neat  wooden  houses  standing  among 
green  hills.  All  the  land  for  many  miles  around  was  said 
to  be  the  property  of  the  Texas  and  Pacific  Coal  Company, 
which  also  owned  the  houses  and  stores.  In  spite  of  this 
monopoly  the  inspector  noted  that  everything  needed  by 
the  miners  was  sold  at  reasonable  prices.  The  director 
of  the  mines,  Mr.  Gordon,  told  him  that  the  Italians  were 
the  best  workmen  in  his  employ,  and  that  the  company 
was  about  to  open  new  mines  and  had  urgent  need  of 
hands.  He  stated  that  there  was  coal  enough  in  the 
lands  of  the  company  to  provide  work  for  the  next  hun 
dred  years,  and  that  his  company  was  ready  to  make 
any  reasonable  provision  to  insure  the  attraction  and  con 
tinuance  of  Italian  labor.  "The  colony  of  Thurber," 
continues  the  inspector,  "is  as  industrious  and  tranquil 
as  anyone  could  desire.  There  are  very  few  disturbances, 
as  is  evident  from  the  fact  that  there  is  only  one  police 
man  in  the  town,  who  is  able  to  maintain  order 

ill 


The  Italian  in  America 

throughout  the  town  as  well  as  in  the  surrounding 
country." 

The  mines  are  located  from  three  to  six  miles  from  the 
village,  but  in  the  morning  and  evening  the  miners  are 
taken  to  work  and  back  to  their  homes  by  two  special 
trains.  It  was  stated  by  the  Italian  workers  at  Thurber 
that  the  mining  was  hard  because  the  stratum  of  coal  was 
thin  and  the  galleries  therefore  low,  so  that  it  was  neces 
sary  to  work  in  a  crouching  position;  but,  on  the  other 
hand,  there  was  assurance  of  safety  from  the  fact  that  the 
coal  did  not  give  off  gas  and  that  the  galleries  were  per 
fectly  dry.  In  consequence  of  the  intervention  of  the 
United  Mine  "Workers  of  America,  it  was  said  that  from 
the  1st  of  October  of  the  year,  1903,  the  working  day  had 
been  reduced  to  eight  hours  and  the  pay  increased  to 
$1.17  1/2  per  ton.  A  delegate  of  the  union  now  assists 
at  the  weighing  of  coal  in  every  mine.  All  the  miners 
work  by  the  piece,  and  according  to  their  greater  or  lesser 
ability  are  earning  from  $2.50  to  $3.00  and  sometimes 
more  per  day.  The  pay  for  the  other  operators,  black 
smiths,  drivers,  etc.,  is  $2.40  per  day.  Inexperienced 
workers,  on  arrival,  who  begin  as  apprentices,  earn  at 
the  start  1.00  per  day,  but  in  a  few  weeks  they  are  said 
to  learn  the  work  and  their  wages  increase  week  by 
week. 

The  inspector  notes  that  the  needed  food  supplies,  bread, 
meat,  fish,  etc.,  are  cheap.  The  unmarried  miners  are 

112 


In  the  Mining  Fields 

accustomed  to  live  in  boarding  houses  with  families  either 
of  relatives  or  fellow-countrymen,  paying  for  board 
$16.00  per  month.  The  greater  part,  he  reports,  make 
notable  savings;  very  few  indeed  spend  all  their  wages. 
The  condition  of  the  miners  in  Colorado  the  inspector 
found  to  be  much  less  satisfactory,  chiefly  owing,  how 
ever,  to  the  long  protracted  strike.  There  were  com 
plaints  also  of  monopolies  and  petty  extortions,  and  at 
the  time  of  his  visit  the  demands  of  the  miners'  unions 
had  not  been  enforced  as  thoroughly  as  in  other  states  of 
the  Central  West  and  South. 

JOHN  J.  D.  TKENOK. 


113 


CHAPTEE  YII 

ON   FARM   AND   PLANTATION 

Why  have  so  few  Italian  immigrants,  comparatively 
speaking,  sought  a  livelihood  and  homes  for  themselves 
in^our  agricultural  states  and  districts?  The  question  is 
ommonly  asked  in  wonderment  and  often  in  reproach  by 
those  who  see  the  Italian  peasants  clustering  so  persist 
ently  in  our  cities,  although  their  former  occupations  and 
experience  have  been  almost  wholly  confined  to  the  tilling 
of  the  land  and  grape  or  olive _g rowing.  This  apparent 
preference  seems  unaccountable  to  those  Avho  are  not  ex 
actly  informed  in  regard  to  the  burdensome  conditions 
under  which  the  Italian  peasant  has  been  laboring  in  his 
own  country,  and  the  practical  necessities  confronting 
him  when  he  lands  in  this  country.  A  characteristic  ex 
pression  of  this  feeling  appeared  lately  in  the  columns  of 
one  of  the  most  judicious  and  sympathetic  of  American 
newspapers,  the  "New  York  Evening  Post." 

"What  use  has  the  New  World  made  of  the  Italian? 
The  greatest  disappointment  is  from  the  industrial  stand 
point.  With  the  blood  of  generations  of  peasants  in  his 
veins,  the  Italian  here  flocks  by  the  hundreds  of  thou- 

114 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

sands  into  the  cities,  and  neglects  the  great  farming  coun 
tries  of  the  South  and  West."  This  condition  was  largely 
attributable,  in  the  editor's  view,  to  the  childlike  and  de 
pendent  nature  of  the  Italian,  and  the  controlling  influence 
of  the  padroni  who  have  profited  by  his  ignorance  and 
helplessness,  and  "have  reduced  him  almost  to  a  state 
of  peonage."  In  spite  of  the  laudable  efforts  noted  of 
the  Italian  Protective  Society  to  better  the  situation,  the 
apparently  gloomy  conclusion  was  reached  that  "in  the 
main  the  American  Italian  has  become  a  confirmed  tene 
ment  dweller." 

My  inquiry  now  calls  up  the  obverse  point  of  view. 
Instead  of  charging  the  Italian  with  neglecting  the  great 
farming  countries  of  the  South  and  West,  would  it  not  be 

ore  correct  to  urge  that  they  have  neglected  him  ?  What 
have  any  of  the  Western  or  Southern  States  done,  except 
\CaTiiornTajand  Louisiana,  to  attract  or  promote  Italian  *  *t 
immigration  and  settlement?  What  has  the  body  of 
farmers  and  plantation  owners  done  to  open  employment 
on  any  practicable  terms  to  the  Italians?  The  Western 
farming  lands  were  very  largely  taken  up  in  advance  by 
ijiamigrajits  from  Northern  Europe  before  the  advent  of 
the  Italians  in  any  considerable  numbers  here.  The  days 
when  accessible  lands  could  be  readily  obtained  under 
our  homestead  laws  were  past.  Preference  was  naturally 
given  by  the  Western  settlers  in  possession  to  immigrant 
helpers  of  their  own  nationalities,  and  opportunities  for 

115 


The  Italian  in  America 

securing  land  have  been  practically  reserved  for  these 
affiliated  colonists  alone. 
{The  Italian  peasant  or  farm  hand  was  of  unknown  and 

Ok**- 

unproved  value  to  the  mass  of  employers  in  the  West. 
A  current  depreciation  of  his  character  and  service  had 
prejudiced  them  against  him,  even  when  there  was  an 
opening  for  his  labor  which  was  not  eagerly  grasped  by 
their  own  countrymen  on  the  sp<5O  They  have  had  no 
active  sentimental  concern  for  th£  condition  of  the  Italian 
peasant  in  our  cities,  and  it  is  a  very  rare  exception  when 
any  one  of  them  has  extended  to  him  a  helping  hand  or 
the  offer  of  employment.  Probably  the  greater  part  of 
them  would  declare  to-day  in  ignorance  or  prejudice  that 
they  didn't  want  to  make  trial  of  Italian  labor  or  to  attract 
Italians  to  their  districts.  (^Even  state  officials  and  the 
working  heads  of  land  and  immigration  associations  have 
been  avowedly  controlled  by  this  prejudice  in  the  discrim 
ination  of  their  invitations  to  settlers,  and  its  existence 
in  the  Southern  States  ha&r>erhaps  been  even  more  strongly 
marked  than  in  the  West./ 

A  notable  instance  in  point  to  this  effect  is  furnished 
by  Mr.  F.  B.  Gordon  in  his  recent  address  as  President  of 
the  Georgia  Industrial  Association.  In  urging  the  neces 
sity  of  promoting  white  immigration,  both  native  and 
foreign,  to  the  Southern  States,  he  called  attention  sharply 
also  to  the  patent  desirability  of  a  more  liberal  spirit  in 
the  welcome  to  immigrants,  and  particularly  with  ref er 
ne 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

ence  to  the  Italiai^g.^  To  illustrate  the  height  of  prevail 
ing  prejudice  he  cited  the  .remarkable  provision  of  a  law 
of  the  1  State  of  South  Carolina  restricting-  immigration 
* *  to  white  citizens  of  the  United  States,  citizens  of  Ire 
land.  Scotland,  Switzerland,  France,  and  all  other  for- 

~2 * ^M         T  7  „ 

fillers  of  Pardon  nricn'n "  J  Both  in  published  reports  and 
in  response  to  hundreds  of  inquiries  directly  addressed  to 
immigration  societies  and  land  owners  throughout  the 
South,  a  very  marked  preference  was  shown  for  the  at 
traction  of  native-born  Americans  already  settled  in  the 
North  and  West  rather  than  for  the  incoming  of  alien 
immigrants.  This  preference  is  largely  due,  of  course,  to 
the  greater  capital  in  money,  goods  and  tools  brought  into 
the  South  by  native  settlers,  and  the  fact  that  the  open 
ings  for  the  men  with  some  capital  are  much  better  as 
sured  at  present  than  the  jsteady  employment  of  labor 
without  capital  to  entrench  it.  \  Yet  the  more  enlightened 
policy  now  fast  extending  through  the  South,  as  careful 
inquiries  prove,  is  a  hopeful  assurance  of  the  opening  of 
greater  opportunities  in  future  years  for  the  profitable 
employment  of  immigrants  honestly  seeking  work  and 
homes  in  this  country. 

In  the  light  of  all  the  facts  in  the  case,  too,  the  despond 
ing  conclusion  that  "the  American  Italian  has  become  a 
confirmed  tenement  dweller ' '  does  not  as  yet  appear  to 
be  justified.  I  have  reached  this  conclusion  not  only  from 
direct  inquiries,  but  from  the  confirming  observations  of 

117 


The  Italian  in  America 

such  expert  investigators  as  Alessandro  Mastro-Valerio  of 
Chicago,  editor  of  "  La  Tribuna  Italiana,"  ^vhoJiasJ^«a 
notably  successful  in  promoting  the  planting  of  Italian 
agricultural  colonies  here.  In  his  discussion  of  the  dis 
tribution  of  Italian  immigration,  embodied  in  the  report 
of  the  Industrial  Commission  (Vol.  XV,  1901),  he  has 
<*•  pointed  out  with  undeniable  force  the  depressing  experi 
ence  of  the  Italian  peasant  at  home  and  the  controlling 
reasons  why  his  work  has  hitherto  been  confined  so  largely 
ito  our  cities  and  railway  lines.  The  Italian  peasant,  he 
writes,  "has  been  kept  in  such  subjection  onaccount^f 
n  —  ariculture  —  that  he  feels  ashamed 


S^ 


of  himsptf  a-TJjiis  work.     He^comesLto  this  country  still 

throws  it  away  with  the  same 

pleasure  that  Hercules  had  in  tearing  fromhis  bodytKe" 
shirt  of  Neasus.  " 

He  is  further  "entirely  ignorant  of  the  possibilities  of 
American  agriculture^  ancTit  never  occu^i^Mm^h^t  he 
could  earn  money  and  make  a  position  for  himself  b^till- 
jl^  thn  Ammrn.n  noil;  Jiaving  been  accustnTn^  f,p 
with  distrust  and  hate  at  the  soil 


hut  as  acruel  and  ungrateful  stepmother.  None  of  his 
countrymen  who  are  already  here  and  who  send  money 
home,  or  have  brought  it  Aome  themselves,  ever  write  or 
sa.^hn±JjMy-fffm^-f.hmr  mormy  hy  \yorki  np^2^j]q  first 
fa%  nf.fr  fvrs^  a.^d  a-ftft-p-yya-^ff  ^^M^tfiTnnglYMj  np  farmers. 
Of  the  moral  and  material  advantages  of  American  coun- 

118 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

try  life,  of  the  comfort  and  independence  it  affords,  of 
the  rights  and  duties  of  the  American  farmer,  as  a  pioneer 
of  civilization  and  as  an  exponent  and  example  of  the 
American  principles  of  self-government,  which  cannot  be 
learned  in  American  cities,  owing  to  political  corruption, 
he  is  totally  ignorant,  since  he  has  always  been  a  servant 
of  the  glebe,  with  many  duties  to  perform  and  very  few 
rights  to  enjoy." 

Moreover,  the  greater  part  of  the  laborers  who  make 
up  the  bulk  of  the  immigration  from  Central  and  Southern 
Italy,  as  pointed  out  in  a  former  chapter,  are  not  country 
folk,  like  the  mass  of  American  farm  hands,  but  cafoni, 
who  have  been  dwellers  in  towns  for  centuries  for  needed 
defence  and  security.  They  are  accustomed  to  the  society 
of  their  own  countrymen,  and  would  naturally  shrink 
from  isolation,  particularly  in  a  place  where  they  are 
ignorant  of  the  language  and  customs  and  have  no  reason 
to  expect  peculiar  consideration  or  a  disposition  to  put 
up  with  shortcomings  until  they  had  grown  familiar  with 
the  requirements  of  employers.  If  they  happened  to 
have  wives  or  families  with  them,  this  shrinking  would 
be  accented,  for  the  Italian  women  are  even  more  depend 
ent  on  the  society  of  neighborsfor  contented  living  than 
their  husbands  would  beifjlbove  all  comesT^too,  the 

"*•'—- ^sfs^S^^3^  . — 

pressing  necessity  in  their  poverty  of  taking  the  first  joj) 
which  comes  to  hand  with  t.hft  fiprtaintv  of  support^  As 
before  noted,  the  first  work  offered  to  them  on  landing 

119 


The  Italian  in  America 

on  our  seacoast  is  commonly  not  on  a  farm,  but  on  docks 
or  railways  or  as  a  day  laborer  in  or  near  American 
cities. 

Yet  in  spite  of  these  obstacles  to  distribution,  there  is 
no  reason  for  discouragement  if  the  character  and  habits 
and  training  of  the  Italian  are  intelligently  kept  in  view 
and  the  lines  of  least  resistance  are  followed.  CThe  Italian 
tenement-house  population  in  New  York  City  is  constantly 
shifting,  year  by  year.  ?  The  Italians  are  growing  keen 
in  their  search  for  better  quarters,  and  only  cling  to  a 
rookery  till  they  see  a  chance  to  better  their  housing  on 
terms  which  they  can  afford  to  pay.  There  is  no  excep 
tional  difficulty  in  drawing  an  Italian  and  his  family  away 
from  New  York  if  he  sees  a  substantial  prospect  of  bet 
tering  his  condition.  In  the  lesser  cities  of  the  state  and 
country  there  are  comparatively  few  tenements  in  the 
restricted  sense  in  which  the  term  is  applied  in  New  York 
City.  In  the  other  cities  and  towns  where  the  immigrants 
are  clustering,  they  are  living  commonly  in  the  older 
residence  houses,  and  often  in  those  of  comparatively  good 
class  originally,  which  have  been  opened  to  tenants  by  a 
shifting  of  their  residents  to  outlying  wards  or  sections. 
These  houses  are  often  dilapidated  and  glaringly  in  want 
of  paint  and  repair,  but  they  are  not  big  congested  rook 
eries,  and  even  the  poorest  are  commonly  open  to  the  air 
and  sunlight,  and  with  a  decent  provision,  at  least,  to  meet 
sanitary  requirements.  There  is  no  inevitable  pressure  to 

120 


On  Farm  and  Plantation  <* 

degeneration  and  disease  in  such  quarters,  and  if  many 
of  the  rooms  appear  ill-kempt  and  dirty  in  the  American 
eye,  the  filth  of  the  quarters  is  rarely  so  great  as  to  seri 
ously  threaten  the  health  of  the  occupants  or  of  the  city 
at  large. 

The  readiest  and  easiest  opening  for  the  successful  em- 
ployment  of  the  Italians  on  the  land  in  this  country  and 
the  betterment  of  their  distribution  is  offered  in  the  ex-^ 
tension  of  market  gardening  near  our  cities  and  towns. 
In  the  care  and  perfecting  of  vegetable  and  small  fruit 
crops  a  great  number  of  the  immigrant  peasants  are  already 
adepts.  The  facility  and  success  with  which  they  are 
taking  up  the  occupations  of  fruit  and  vegetable  handling 
and  selling  in  so  many  American  cities  to-day  point 
directly  to  the  probability  of  an  equal  measure  of  success 
in  the  growing  and  marketing  of  these  products.  More 
over,  this  is  no  longer  simply  a  probable  assumption.  No 
more  successful  instances  of  market  gardening  are  appa 
rent  anywhere  in  this  country  than  can  be  seen  on  the 
land  now  cultivated  by  Italians.  The  Italian  family  is 
peculiarly  qualified  to  make  headway  in  intensive  farm 
ing,  for  the  women  and  children  take  readily  to  the  work 
as  well  as  the  men,  and  contribute  an  often  essential  part 
of  the  labor  required  for  the  support  of  the  family  and  the 
maturing  of  the  crops. 

Six  years  ago  I  was  invited  by  one  of  the  leading  hotel 
and  restaurant  keepers  in  New  Haven  to  drive  out  with 

121 


The  Italian  in  America 

him  to  look  over  a  market  garden  which  had  been  planted 
by  a  poor  Italian  and  his  family  only  a  few  years  before 
near  the  suburbs  of  the  city.  I  have  never  seen  anywhere 
in  this  country  a  more  thriving  garden,  nor  one  in  which 
every  possible  means  of  advancing  the  crops  that  were 
available  to  a  poor  man  had  been  more  keenly  noticed 
*  and  grasped.  The  owner  had  even  then  made  an  unquali 
fied  success  of  his  venture.  He  had  largely  extended  his 
original  holdings,  was  employing  a  number  of  his  own 
countrymen  as  helpers,  and  delivering  his  produce  in  his 
own  handsome  market  vans  to  shipping  depots  and  an 
extended  range  of  customers  in  the  city,  including  all  the 
principal  hotels  and  restaurants.  His  garden  beds  were 
thoroughly  cleaned  of  weeds  and  stones,  and  all  highly 
fertilized  by  the  systematic  collection  of  street  droppings 
and  the  addition  of  other  manures.  His  laborers  and 
children  had  diligently  collected  slightly  broken  and  refuse 
window  glass  from  all  parts  of  the  city,  and  he  had  used 
this  glass  at  first  exclusively  in  covering  his  plants  to 
force  their  spring  growth,  though  he  was  later  able  to 
replace  these  covers  with  neatly  constructed  forcing  cases 
and  greenhouses.  Even  with  his  rude  appliances  at  the 
start  he  was  able  to  market  his  vegetables  in  New  Haven 
nearly  two  weeks  earlier  than  the  average  of  his  neigh 
bors  and  to  reap  the  profits  of  a  stinted  supply  and  unsatis 
fied  demand. 

This  same  gardener  has  now  a  widely  extended  and 

122 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

most  thrifty  plantation,  giving  employment  in  the  season 
to  200  of  his  poorer  countrymen,  women  and  children, 
and  holding  up  an  object  lesson  by  which  many  thousands 
of  immigrants  to  this  country  should  profit.  It  is  very 
short-sighted  fault-finding  that  would  complain  of  this 
progress,  as  a  New  Haven  clergyman  did,  because  the 
laborers  under  him  are  earning  as  yet  small  wages,  and 
are  not  housed  commodiously.  He  is  hiring  his  labor  in 
the  open  market,  as  all  other  American  employers  do 
when  they  can,  and  his  working  people  are  glad  of  the 
opportunity  offered  to  earn  a  certain  and  congenial  liv 
ing  with  the  prospect  of  advancement  on  their  own  ac 
count  independently,  sooner  or  later. 

The  opportunities  grasped  by  this  Italian  have  not  been 
exceptional.  There  is  not  a  single  one  of  the  cities  of  this 
country  yet  reached  by  the  Italians  where  there  is  avail 
able  market  land  near  by  that  is  not  now  receiving  vege 
tables  and  fruits  as  the  produce  of  Italian  labor.  In  fact, 
the  employment  of  Italians  in  market  gardening  in  our 
Northern  States,  on  the  Pacific  coast  and  to  some  extent  / 
in  the  South,  has  been  advancing  of  recent  years  with  cer 
tain  success  and  the  most  hopeful  prospect.  There  is  a 
really  large  sprinkling  of  them  now  profitably  at  work 
on  Long  Island  and  Staten  Island,  in  the  State  of  New 
Jersey,  in  the  Delaware  peach  belt,  in  the  large  truck 
farming  districts  of  Norfolk,  Virginia,  in  the  suburbs  of 
Washington  and  Baltimore,  and  in  many  of  the  cities  and 

123 


The  Italian  in  America 

towns  of  Massachusetts,  Connecticut,  Rhode  Island,  Penn- 

sylvania  and  New  York.  />(,.o    jUcV«|MV 

On  the  outskirts  of  Memphis,  Tennessee,  a  large  colony 
of  Italian  truck  farmers  is  of  particular  note.  These  col 
onists  all  come  from  the  neighborhood  of  the  town  of 
Alessandria,  and  their  settlement  is  formally  known  from 
their  pride  in  their  birthplace  as  "  La  Colonia  Alessandrina 
di  Memphis."  They  have  been  successfully  established 
for  years  in  their  pursuit  of  furnishing  Memphis  with  fruit 
and  vegetables,  and  are  reported  to  be  without  exception 
well-to-do.  This  unbroken  success  is  doubtless  due  largely 
to  their  neighborly  affiliation  and  disposition  to  help  one 
another.  Certain  assurance  of  co-operation  and  mainte 
nance  is  marked  in  their  organization  of  a  mutual  help 
society  known  as  "  La  Societa  di  Muttuo  Soccorso  dei 
Giardinieri  Italiani  di  Memphis,"  a  provision  which  might 
be  readily  copied  to  advantage  by  their  fellow-countrymen 
here  and  which  is,  indeed,  now  paralleled  on  a  more  re 
stricted  scale  by  the  Italian  sick,  death  and  accident  bene 
fit  societies  already  fast  multiplying  among  the  Italians 
in  American  cities.  In  his  recent  report  to  the  Eoyal 
Emigration  Department,  the  visiting  inspector,  Signer 
Eossi,  made  particular  note  of  "  the  most  beautiful  truck 
farms"  of  this  colony,  and  ascertained  from  the  Italian 
Consular  Agent  at  Memphis  that  the  Italians  in  the  State 
of  Tennessee  were  approximately  three  thousand  in  num 
ber,  " almost  all  farmers  who  were  doing  well." 

124 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

Further  south  the  truck  farming  settlements  of  Italians 
near  New  Orleans  and  Galveston  are  almost  equally  not 
able,  and  their  success  is  an  object  lesson  for  the  possible 
supply  of  many  another  Southern  city — a  lesson  already 
appreciated  by  Dallas,  Houston,  San  Antonio,  and  the 
larger  Texan  towns  in  whose  suburbs  Italian  truck  farm 
ing  is  already  progressing  successfully. 

One  of  the  most  noteworthy  instances  of  the  feasibility 
of  establishing  this  Italian  immigrant  industry  on  a  basis 
entirely  satisfactory  is  afforded  by  the  plantations  in  the 
township  of  Canastota,  1ST.  Y.  Here  the  Italians  were 
first  attracted  by  the  offer  of  arable  land  to  be  worked  on 
the  share  system,  closely  correspondent  to  the  Tuscan 
mezzeria  with  which  all  natives  of  Central  Italy  are  famil 
iar.  The  land  was  divided  into  tracts,  each  assigned  to 
a  separate  family.  The  needed  seed  or  plants  or  tools  for 
cultivation  were  furnished  by  the  owners  when  required. 
A  plain,  small,  but  sufficient  house  was  provided  for  each 
family,  and  the  requisite  credit  for  the  food  supply  for 
the  first  season's  work  was  extended. 

Each  cultivator  had,  as  a  rule,  from  five  to  six  acres  to 
coxa-Si. iiere  he  produced  onions,  beets,  spinach,  cab 
bage,  celery  and  other  vegetables  for  which  the  demand 
was  certain  and  the  market  ready.  At  the  close  of  the 
season  half  the  product  was  credited  to  him  and  half  to 
his  landlord,  deducting  advances  for  rent  from  the  labor 
er's  share  of  profits.  ^ 

125 


The  Italian  in  America 

The  success  of  this  undertaking  was  so  marked  from 
the  start  that  its  extension  followed  as  a  matter  of  course 
without  any  artificial  urging.  The  number  of  Italians 
employed  on  these  plantations  has  grown  to  over  five 
hundred,  including  the  women  and  children,  as  estimated 
by  Hon.  Milton  Delano,  President  of  the  State  Bank  of 
Canastota.  When  I  visited  this  township  recently  the 
permanence  of  this  settlement  was  assured  beyond  ques 
tion.  Most  of  the  Italians  on  the  plantations  had  already 
saved  enough  to  buy  and  own  without  debt  their  own  little 
houses  and  farms,  and  some  had  considerably  increased 
the  size  of  their  original  holdings.  All  without  known 
exception,  as  Mr.  Delano  reported,  were  thriving  and 
contented.  A  considerable  number  had  opened  accounts 
in  his  bank,  and  many  more  were  depositors  in  the  savings 
banks  of  Syracuse  and  other  neighboring  cities. 

There  was  no  criminal  disposition  noted  and  there  had 
never  been  any  serious  trouble  in  the  settlement.  The 
parents  were  ambitious  for  their  children,  and  the  children 
were  eager  to  learn  and  would  compare  favorably  with 
any  other  American  children  of  the  same  age  and  condi 
tion  in  life.  Mr.  Delano  and  other  well-informed  Ameri 
can  residents  were  unhesitating  in  their  declaration  that 
the  character  of  the  settlement  was  in  all  respects  unexcep 
tionable.  It  was  particularly  noted  that  the  settlers  were 
unusually  prompt  in  paying  their  debts  and  meeting  any 
obligations.  Not  one  among  them,  Mr.  Delano  said,  had 

126 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

ever  been  committed  to  the  poorhouse  or  become  a  vagrant 
or  called  upon  anybody  for  charitable  relief.  They  had 
organized  two  benefit  societies  of  their  own,  as  a  provision 
for  sickness,  accidental  injury  or  death,  and  these  associa 
tions  were  strong  enough  to  respond  to  any  call  upon 
them.  It  is  in  such  model  settlements,  the  feasibility  of 
whose  extension  is  unquestionable,  that  one  certain  solu 
tion  is  presented  of  the  so-called  problem  of  Italian  immi 
gration. 

In  the  cultivation  of  berries  of  every  kind  the  Italian 
in  America  soon  becomes  particularly  adept,  even  if  he 
has  had  little  previous  training.  This  is  so  well  attested 
that  a  single  illustration  may  suffice,  the  advance  of  straw 
berry  culture  at  Independence,  Louisiana,  since  the  entry 
of  the  Italian  gardeners.  Fifteen  years  ago  there  was  not 
an  Italian  family  in  this  settlement  on  the  main  line  of 
the  Illinois  Central  Eailroad,  sixty-two  miles  north  of 
New  Orleans.  Now  there  are  at  least  one  hundred  and 
sixty  thriving  Italian  families  in  the  township,  and  their 
work  has  made  Independence  the  ' ( blue  ribbon  ' '  straw 
berry  shipper  of  Louisiana,  if  not  of  the  country  at  large. 

The  railroad  and  bank  reports  for  the  season  of  1904 
credit  the  berry  growers  and  pickers  of  Independence 
with  the  shipment  of  two  hundred  and  seventy-five  car 
loads  of  berries  of  unsurpassed  quality  to  St.  Louis,  Chi 
cago,  Cincinnati  and  the  Southern  markets,  with  a  money 
return  of  $700,000.  And  the  marvel  of  this  shipment 

127 


The  Italian  in  America 

is  the  greater  when  it  is  brought  to  mind  that  this  grand 
crop  came  from  the  ground  that  twenty  years  ago  was 
reckoned  to  be  the  poorest  land  in  the  South,  practically 
unsalable  at  any  price.  This  was  one  of  the  sandy,  stump- 
filled  tracts  from  which  the  pine  timber  had  been  cut — too 
poor  to  grow  cotton,  corn  or  cane,  and  offered  for  years 
at  the  nominal  rate  of  $1  per  acre — without  attracting  any 
purchasers. 

But  with  the  keener  study  of  the  soil  and  some  expert 
experimenting  with  fertilizers,  the  peculiar  value  of  these 
cleared  pine  lands  for  small  fruit  growing  was  demon 
strated.  Peaches  thrive,  too,  luxuriantly  in  the  thin,  red 
clay  soil  of  the  uplands,  while  strawberries,  which  can 
be  grown  in  any  soil  of  the  region,  ripen  earliest  in  the 
sandy  tracts.  Hence  these  berries  are  frequently  ready 
for  market  during  the  month  of  March,  and  the  fruit  con 
tinues  to  blossom  and  ripen  for  two  full  months  and  even 
longer.  With  the  unflagging  industry  and  care  of  the 
Italian  berry  growers,  there  will  be  an  extraordinary  ex 
pansion  of  small  fruit-raising  in  the  South  during  the  next 
decade  if  proper  measures  are  taken  to  secure  and  main 
tain  contentedly  the  settlement  of  Italians  on  tracts  avail 
able  for  this  purpose. 

This  has  been  conclusively  demonstrated  by  the  advance 
of  Independence  and  like  plantations,  for  no  particular 
advantages  were  offered  for  the  assistance  of  the  Italian 
settlers.  On  the  contrary,  Inspector  Kossi  reports  that 

128 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

several  tracts  in  Independence  had  been  abandoned  by  the 
American  farmers  because  they  were  too  marshy  and 
subject  to  floods.  The  keen- judging  Italians  bought  these 
tracts  at  low  prices  and  made  them  highly  productive  by 
drainage  ditches,  finally  cutting  a  discharging  canal  three 
Tnilftgjn  length  wln'fth  iff  Annually  cleaned, out.  Almost 
all  the  Italian  settlers  are  Sicilians  from  Palermo,  and  their 
good  conduct  and  success  is  a  signal  attestation  of  the 
character  and  adaptive  faculty  which  so  many  Southern 
Italians  are  showing  in  this  country  in  the  face  of  existing 
prejudice.  "  Every  one  of  these  families,"  as  Signor 
Rossi  records,  ''after  paying  all  expenses,  saved  every 
year  a  few  hundred  dollars,  which  they  deposited  in  the 
local  American  banks,  sending  a  part  of  it  to  Italy.  The 
material  well-being  of  all  could  not  possibly  be  greater." 

In  other  highly  important  branches  of  agricultural 
industry  in  this  country  Italian  immigrants  have  already 
made  very  notable  advances  also,  not  only  in  the  results 
as  yet  attained,  but  in  assurance  for  the  future.  To  the 
extension  and  perfection  of  grape  and  olive  growing  par 
ticularly,  they  have  made  contributions  of  unquestionable 
importance. 

A  noteworthy  success  in  this  line,  as  well  as  in  truck 
farming,  has  been  attained  by  the  Italian  colony  at  Vine- 
land,  X.  J. ,  and  its  subsequent  extensions  to  the  adjoining 
townships  of  Landisville  and  Plainfield  where  more  than 
6,000  Italians  are  now  profitably  and  prosperously  em- 

129 


The  Italian  in  America 


ployed.  TbiftcH^Tiy  was  founded  ^  1^7^  by  a  faw  Ital 
ian  peasants  under  the  leadership  of  one  of  their  own 
countrymen,,  who  deserves  an  enduring  memorial.  This 
was  the  Chevalier  Secchi  de  Casale,  a  disciple  of  Mazzini 
and  a  comrade  of  Garibaldi  in  his  gallant  fight  for  the  in 
dependence  of  Italy.  In  1849,  when  the  struggle  for  free 
dom  had  failed  for  the  time  being,,  Signor  de  Casale  fled 
to  New  York  with  some  companions  and  made  his  home  for 
a  time  on  Staten  Island  in  the  Village  of  Stapleton.  lie 
soon  established  the  first  Italian  newspaper  in  New  York, 
L'Eco  d'  Italia,  reaching  with  unflagging  good  cheer 
the  sparsely  sprinkled  refugees  of  his  nation  in  the  United 
States,  Canada  and  Mexico.  He  was  an  ever  helpful  coun 
sellor  and  guardian  to  the  poorest  immigrant  appealing  to 
him  for  guidance  and  help.  He  was  the  first,  too,  to 
interpose  signally  for  the  protection  of  the  poor  little 
Italian  street  musicians  who  had  been  brought  over  and 
exploited  for  years  by  unscrupulous  padroni.  By  the  aid 
of  the  Italian  consular  and  diplomatic  representatives  in 
this  country  he  secured  in  1874  the  passage  of  an  act  by 
the  Italian  Parliament  to  abate  this  evil,  and  his  efforts 
were  seconded  also  by  corresponding  legislation  in  this 
country.  He  was  very  fitly  knighted  by  King  Victor  Em 
manuel  in  recognition  of  his  services,  and  no  Italian  since 
the  days  of  Columbus  and  the  Cabots  has  been  more  worthy 
of  commemoration  for  the  keen-sighted  intelligence  and 
devotion  of  his  services  to  the  Italian  in  America. 

130 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

He  was  the  first  to  recognize  actively  here  the  importance 
of  diverting  the  stream  of  Italian  immigration  to  rural 
districts  at  the  very  outset  of  the  rising  of  its  flow.  If 
he  had  been  able  to  secure  any  wide-ranging  co-operation, 
it  is  practically  certain  that  he  would  have  succeeded  in 
the  solution  of  the  so-called  " Italian  problem"  in  this 
country.  He  was  fortunate,  however,  in  obtaining  a  sig 
nal  demonstration  of  this  fact  through  the  hearty  sym 
pathy  of  one  large  American  landowner,  Mr.  Charles 
Landis  of  Landisville,  N.  J.  This  public- spirited  Ameri 
can  put  considerable  tracts  of  land  in  Yineland  and  the 
neighborhood  at  the  disposal  of  Signer  de  Casale  for  the 
development  of  his  colonization  scheme.  This  apparently 
weak  little  colony  reached  self-support  and  success  within 
three  years  from  its  start.  The  Italians  of  Yineland  were 
able  to  produce  and  market  wine  from  their  own  planta 
tions  in  1881,  and  some  wine  is  still  made  in  this  colony, 
though  the  efforts  of  the  colonists  have  since  been  largely 
diverted  to  the  more  profitable  occupation  of  truck  farm 
ing  and  especially  to  the  cultivation  of  sweet  potatoes,  a 
crop  that  has  proved  particularly  desirable.  The  workers 
on  these  plantations,  as  a  body,  are  unquestionably  con 
tented  and  prospering,  and  their  success  is  sufficient  proof 
of  what  might  have  been  achieved  by  many  like  colonies 
elsewhere,  if  a  like  intelligent  co-operation  had  been  ex 
tended  to  them  by  American  landowners. 

Alessandro  Mastro-Yalerio  is  another  patriotic  Italian 

131 


The  Italian  in  America 

who  has  carried  Italian  colonization  onward  with  signal 
success  in  this  country  along  the  lines  first  deeply  marked 
by  Chevalier  de  Casale.  The  agricultural  colonies  which 
he  established  in  succession,  in  the  years  1890  and  1893, 
at  Daphne  and  Lamberth,  Alabama,  are  of  peculiar  in 
terest  in  their  pointing  to  the  successful  development  of 
the  South  by  Italian  colonization.  The  foundation  of  the 
colony  at  Daphne  was  laid  by  him  in  the  heart  of  an 
invigorating  pine  forest  by  the  settlement  of  twenty  Italian 
families  on  land  bought  at  from  $1.50  to  $5.00  per  acre. 
The  allotment  for  each  family  was  from  25  to  50  acres. 
The  growth  of  pines  was  cleared  away  by  degrees,  and 
the  colonists  used  the  lumber  which  they  cut  from  their 
own  trees  to  build  their  houses.  Mr.  Mastro-Valerio  was 
then  conducting  experiments  for  the  United  States  De 
partment  of  Agriculture,  and  the  "Alabama  State  Ex 
periment  Station,"  and  was  able  to  give  to  the  colonists 
all  needed  instruction  in  the  planting  and  care  of  the  vine 
yards  which  he  planned  for  them.  From  the  outset  he 
inspired  their  efforts  unflaggingly  and  made  it  possible  for 
them  to  overcome  the  inevitable  difficulties  and  endure 
the  trying  privations  of  pioneer  colonization.  The  vines 
and  fruit  trees,  expertly  laid  out  in  a  neatly  ordered  system 
of  rows  and  stakes,  have  thrived  remarkably,  and  their 
fruit  is  brought  to  an  unusually  early  maturity  so  that 
the  vintage  is  ended  by  the  10th  of  July,  and  uncrushed 
grapes  can  be  shipped  to  the  Northern  market  where  they 

132 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

command  a  price  as  high  as  15  cents  a  pound.  The  de 
mand  for  this  shipment  has  been  such  that  some  choice 
varieties  of  European  vines  producing  grapes  for  the  table 
have  been  grafted  on  native  stock,  and  this  hybrid  product 
has  proved  very  attractive  and  appetizing.  The  sale  of 
these  grapes  is  constantly  extending,  and  wine  of  excellent 
quality  has  already  been  made  in  quantity  for  market,  and 
both  demand  and  product  are  surely  extending. 

"While  awaiting  the  maturing  of  the  vineyards  and  fruit 
trees,  the  same  intelligent  director  pushed  forward  from 
the  start  the  production  of  vegetables  marketable  from 
the  end  of  the  first  season  for  the  livelihood  of  the  col 
onists.  The  soil  of  Daphne  is  sandy,  with  a  red  or  yellow 
subsoil,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being  easily  worked,  a 
very  important  feature  to  colonists  with  little  capital  and 
simple  tools  of  husbandry.  It  is  not  fertile,  and  would 
hardly  warrant  cultivation  without  the  use  of  artificial 
fertilizers,  but  this  was  foreseen  by  the  promoter  of  the 
colony  and  the  needed  fertilization  was  determined  and 
provided.  On  the  cleared  lands  wheat,  corn,  rice,  to 
bacco,  cotton,  oats,  peanuts,  Irish  and  sweet  potatoes  and 
other  vegetables  were  successfully  grown,  and  the  whole 
district  is  now  luxuriantly  productive,  sometimes  yielding 
two  crops  in  a  year. 

These  colonist  families  are,  without  exception,  contented 
and  thrifty.  The  climate  is  remarkably  healthy.  The 
ozone  and  aroma  of  the  pines  are  delightful  and  invigorat- 

133 


The  Italian  in  America 

ing.  Winter  snows  rarely  fall  on  this  favored  land,  and 
the  summer  heat  is  tempered  by  the  constant  breeze  from 
the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  Occasional  frost  is  the  only  plague 
which  colonists  have  to  fear,  and  its  blight  is  expertly 
avoided  in  the  coldest  nights  of  March  by  ranges  of  open- 
air  fires  consuming  little  hillocks  of  damp  leaves  and  grass 
sprinkled  with  petroleum.  The  colony  now  possesses  a 
school  and  church  of  its  own,  and  its  noteworthy  thrift 
and  success  have  been  repeatedly  remarked  by  interested 
visitors  and  the  representative  newspapers  of  Daphne  and 
Mobile. 

The  colony  of  Lamberth  was  established  to  meet  the 
selection  of  Italians  who  wished  to  settle  along  the  line 
of  the  Mobile  and  Ohio  Railway  i;n  lyfoTyilp.  Donnty  This 
colony  has  now  more  than  a  dozen  families  of  very  pros 
perous  people,  successfully  engaged  in  viticulture  and  in 
truck  farming.  They  have  built  a  church  and  school  and 
secured  a  railway  station  at  their  plantation.  Their  de 
velopment  has  been  so  closely  correspondent  to  that  of 
the  larger  colony  of  Daphne  under  the  same  direction 
that  it  is  unnecessary  to  particularize  its  methods  of 
progress. 

The  success  of  these  typical  colonies  unquestionably 
shows  what  might  be  effected  without  much  difficulty 
through  this  plan  of  distribution  if  it  could  be  prosecuted 
on  a  great  scale  with  efficient  co-operation,  but  this,  un 
fortunately,  cannot  be  assured,  and  it  is,  therefore,  of  more 

134 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

immediate  practical  interest  to  note  what  has  been  effected 
thus  far  by  an  almost  unaided  movement  of  distribution. 
This  appears  in  the  thriving  vineyards  of  the  wine  belt 
of  New  York,  Pennsylvania  and  Ohio  where  Italian  labor 
is  now  largely  employed  and  where  the  advance  of  Italian 
ownership  is  steadily  if  not  rapidly  progressing.  Here 
the  object-lesson  doesn't  require  the  provision  of  special 
means  for  its  extension,  the  Italian  beginning  as  a  hired 
laborer  under  appreciative  employers  and  gradually  ad 
vancing  to  the  self-supported  assertion  of  independence. 
The  advance  of  the  Italians  in  the  agricultural  settle- 
ments^ofCalitornia  suffices  to  show  the  prospect  that  is 
open  to  fjpifth  ^laborer  TlfldeF  f&vormg  conditions.  H 
view  of  his  unhappy  experience  at  home  it  will  be  gener 
ally  easier  also  to  induce  the  Italian  cafoni  who  land  here 
as  immigrants  to  go  upon  the  land  with  the  certainty  of 
fixed  wages  at  the  outset,  a  weekly  return  in  cash  which 
they  can  see  and  handle,  than  to  hold  up  to  them  the 
less  tangible  prospects  of  profit  sharing  on  a  co-operative 
basis  or  the  promise  of  land  with  indefinite  burdens  to 
be  assumed  before  its  ownership  is  secured  to  them.  This 
was  notably  demonstrated  in  the  planting  of  the  no 
famous  colony<gr"j£sti  in  Sonoma  County,  Californi 

/Here  the  organizers  were  chiefly  enterprising  Italians  of 
San  Francisco  who  were  able  to  command  sufficient  means 
for  the  establishment  of  a  promising  colonyj  They  raised 
a  capital  of  $10,000,  and  then  appointed  a  committee  of 


The  Italian  in  America 

three  directors  to  select  the  most  desirable  location  for  a 
vineyard.  The  prime  motive  of  this  undertaking  was' 
distinctly  philanthropic,  as  its  originators  were  not  look 
ing  for  personal  profit  but  were  moved  by  the  desire"  of 
providing  a  good  livelihood  ana  prospects  lor  tne  poor 
Italians  in  !San  Francisco  who  were  finding  it  difficult  to 
obtain  steady  employment!  After  an  exhaustive"  exam 
ination  the  committee  selected  a  tract  of  fifteen  hundred 
acres  of  rolling  hill  land  not  subject  to  drought  and  ex 
cellently  well  adapted  for  viticulture,  and  accessible  by 
railway  at  a  distance  of  a  little  more  than  a  hundred 
miles  from  San  Francisco.  They  named  the  chosen  spot 
Asti  in  memory  of  the  ancient  Asti  in  Piedmont,  whose 
product  of  wine  has  been  for  centuries  a  source  of  pride 
to  its  citizens. 

The  first  cost  of  the  land  to  the  Association  was  $25,000, 
and  to  secure  clear  title  its  members  were  obliged  to  pay 
down  at  once  the  subscription  in  their  treasury  and  raise 
an  additional  $15,000  at  the  rate  of  $1,000  a  month  for 
fifteen  months  thereafter.  This  they  did,  and  then  further 
capital  was  needed  and  provided  to  clear  the  sheep  range, 
which  they  had  bought,  of  immense  oak  trees  and  roots, 
and  prepare  the  land  for  setting  out  grape  cuttings. 

In  the  By-Laws  of  the  Association  preference  for  per 
manent  employment  was  given  to  Italian-Swiss  persons 
who  were  either  citizens  of  the  United  States  or  had 

—5 

declared  their  intention  to  become  citizens-j  This  article 

136 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

was   intended  to  secure  permanence  of  settlement  and 
benefit  to  the  laborers.     Provision  was  mad?  for  tin*  pny  ^ 
ment  of  wages  ranging  from  $30  to  $40  per  month  in 
'addition  to  sleeping  quarters,  good  board  and  a^mnchT 
.wjne  as  they  cared  to  drink.     This  proposal  was  on  its  face 
attractive  enough  for  any  Italian  laborer  in  the  city,  and 
there  would  not  have  been  the  least  difficulty  in  filling 
up  the  possible  quota  of  laborers  to  the  limit  had  it  not 

fc 

been  coupled  with  a  proviso^  requiring  each  laborer  to\ 
subscribe  to  at  least  five  shares  of  stock  in  the  Associa 
tion,  in  payment  for  which  a  deduction  of  $5.00  per 
month  would  be  withheld  from  his  wages.     He  would 
thus  be  interested  in  the  profits  of  the  enterprise  and  on 
a  relatively  equal  footing  of  dignity  and  control  with  the 
leading  proprietors  or  share  owners.     Moreover,    this 
subscription,  if  he  so  desired,    when  the  land  became 
fruitful,  would  entitle  him  to  receive  a  number  of  acres  \ 
to  own  and  develop  independently.     To   any  American    / 
laborer  this  requirement  would,  of  course,  seem  at  the  I 
worst  an  inconsiderable  drawback,  even  if  its  prospective 
benefits  were  not  keenly  appreciated.     But  the  poor  Ital-  JL/ 
ians,  one  and  all,  failed  to  understand  it  or  were  suspi-    \ 
CLOUS  of  a  possible  cheat  or  perilous  liability  in  it.     Hence     1 
it  is  a  matter  of  record  that  not  a  single  laborer  could  be 
induced  to  go  to  work  under  the  compulsion  to  take  even 
a  share  of  stock  in  the  Association.     Thus  the  organizers     \ 
were  obliged  to  dispose  of  this  allotment  of  stock  to  other 

137 


The  Italian  in  America    Q 

subscribers  and  to  pay  their  laborers  wholly  in  cash,  thereby 
defeating  at  the  outset  the  cherished  aim  of  the  Associ 
ation  for  the  improvement  of  the  condition  of  the  laborer. 

It  must  be  conceded,  however,  that  for  a  number  of 
years  the  actual  progress  and  returns  of  the  undertaking 
seemed  to  justify  the  scepticism  of  the  laborers.  The 
preparation  of  the  soil  was  steadily  continued  and  choice 
grape  cuttings  were  imported  from  Italy,  France,  Hun 
gary  and  the  valley  of  the  Khine  through  an  interested  co- 
operator,  Dr.  Gr.  Olino  of  Asti,  Italy.  These  cuttings 
were  received  in  good  condition  and  set  out  on  the  land 
of  the  company  under  the  direction  of  an  expert.  When 
the  vines  came  into  prolific  bearing,  however,  the  Asso 
ciation  was  obliged  to  face  a  grave  disappointment.  At 
f%)  fti-nfl  of  the  organization  of  the  Association  the  market 
price  of  grapes  from  California  was  $30.00  per  Jaaai^a^rate 
that  was  a  certain  guarantee  of  very  large  profits.  But 
when  the  grapes  from  the  Association  were  ready  for 
marketing,  the  price  had  fallen  to  $8.00  per  ton,  a  return 
wMchLjddn't  even  meet  the  cost  of  growing  the  product. 

Hence  it  was  necessary  to  suspend  operations,  or  else 
to  extend  the  plan  of  production  by  undertaking  the  man 
ufacture  of  wine  on  the  ground.  Meanwhile  the  required 
monthly  payment  had  been  continued  for  five  years,  and 
every  shareholder  had  been  obliged  to  pay  $60.00  a  share 
for  his  stock,  raising  the  capital  invested  thus  far  to 
$150,000.  The  call  for  the  building  of  a  stone  winery  of 

138 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

adequate  capacity  then  entailed  a  further  assessment  of 
$10.00  per  share,  with  which  the  needed  establishment 
was  built  and  wine  produced  for  market.  Even  then,  at 
the  outset,  the  undertaking  seemed  doomed  to  failure. 
The  best  price  that  could  be  obtained  for  the  wine  from/ 

nly  7  cents  per  gallon,  a  re 


turn  below  the  cost  of  production,  and  if  the  energetic 
•flirfTitiftrp  of  the  Association  had  not  persisted  in  seeking 
a  better  price,  by  shipping^their  product  in  quantity  to 
in  New  0%.^  Dhip-affn,  "New  York  and  other 
ir  venture  would  have  collapsed  in- 


eyjtably.  Fortunately  their  faith  and  persistence  were 
justified  by  the  judgment  of  the  leading  dealers  of  the 
country  and  the  appreciation  of  consumers.  LJhey  suc 
ceeded  in  selling  their  product  at  prices  ranging  from  30 
to  50  cents  per  gallon,  according  to  quality,  and  a  steady 
and  profitable  demand  was  thenceforth  assuredj 

Moreover,  the  able  controllers  of  the  Association  had 
the  exceptional  patience  and  judgment  requisite  to  con-  / 
duct  their  business  with  the  view  primarily  of  perfecting 
their  product  to  the  farthest  attainable  point  without  sac 
rificing  its  quality  for  the  sake  of  immediate  cash  returns. 
Thev  continued  to  sell,  year  by  year,  only  enough  of  their 
product  to  pay  running  expenses  and  the  enlargements 
essential  for  the  development  of  the  business.  The  bal 
ance  of  the  wines  was  stored  in  their  vaults  and  expertly 
matured.  It  was  only  after  sixteen  years  of  this  patient 


The  Italian  in  America 

perfecting  that  the  .Aggnr.iaf.irm  foegan  for  the  first  time 
jj2jyy  p.  dixridoTid  f0  its  str>p,1^ aiders,  but  subsequent  re 
turns  have  richly  rewarded  their  patience.  A  continuous 
succession  of  large  dividends  has  been  paid,  and  these 
returns  and  the  known  value  of  the  property  have  raised 
the  value  of  the  shares  to  three  times  their  original  cost 
to  the  investors.  "Qie  Association  has  now  the  largest 
jry  win  ft  vineynrd  in  California  and  a  great  winery  com" 
p1etfi)y  fit.fo4  with  the  best  modern  equipment.  The  best 
wine-producing  grapes  are  perfected,  including  the  lead 
ing  Italian  varieties,  such  as  thg  Freisa,  Grignolino,  Ba- 
rolo,  Barbera  and  Chianti.  (In  this  winery  for  two 
months  in  the  year  300  tons  of  grapes  are  pressed  daily. 
Immense  glass  vats,  each  holding  120,000  litres,  receive 
the  product,  and  there  are  never  less  than  from  6,000 

OO  barrels  in  the  warehouses.  I 

—  -* 
Here  the  principal  Italian  wines  and  the  red  and  white 

wines  of  France  and  Germany  are  now  produced,  besides 
sweet  wines  in  great  variety  and  extra  dry  champagnes 
for  the  American  market.  It  is  also  producing  what  is 
reported  to  be  a  very  superior  quality  of  brandy  and  cog 
nac,  including  the  favorite  Grappa  of  the  Italian  people, 
which  is  said  to  be  identical  in  flavor  and  taste  with  that 
made  in  the  mother  country.  For  the  past  ten  years  the 
establishment  has  been  emplo}7ing  more  than  two  hun 
dred  laborers  daily,  and  at  the  time  of  the  harvest,  which 
lasts  two  months,  many  hundreds  more  are  engaged.  The 

140 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

colony  has  long  been  a  most  thriving  settlement  with 
many  families  and  happy  homes,  a  well-built  and  well- 
conducted  school  and  complete  post  office,  telephone  and 
telegraphic  communications.  Its  carefully  matured  prod 
uct  of  wines  is  now  shipped  daily  to  all  parts  of  Central 
and  South  America,  China  and  Japan,  and  in  very  con 
siderable  quantity  to  England,  Germany,  Switzerland  and 
Belgium,  and  even  to  the  ports  of  Southern  France  where 
it  bears  favorable  comparison,  it  is  said,  with  the  standard 
French  wines.  \ 

There  is  an  extraordinary  resemblance  of  the  hills  of 
Asti  to  those  of  the  historic  Asti  in  Italy,  from  which  it 
takes  its  name.  Its  beauty  strikes  the  eye  of  every  visi 
tor,  and  the  artistic  villas  on  its  hillsides,  chiefly  owned 
by  members  of  the  Italian- Swiss  Association,  are  among 
the  most  charming  residences  in  California.  Three  of 
the  leading  members  are  particularly  distinguished  in  the 
report  of  Signor  Eossi.  Cav.  A.  Sbarboro,  native  of  Genoa, 
came  here  as  a  boy  and  laid  the  foundation  of  his  fortune 
in  the  promotion  of  the  colony  by  establishing  co-opera 
tive  banks.  Through  this  undertaking,  by  the  contribu 
tion  for  investment  of  a  small  sum  monthly,  resident 
families  obtained  loans  to  build  houses  and  for  other  enter 
prises.  Cav.  Pietro  C.  Kossi,  a  distinguished  pharmacist 
and  graduate  of  the  University  of  Turin,  was  first  engaged 
in  business  in  America  in  the  drug  line.  Dr.  De  Vecchi 
entered  the  Italian- Swiss  Colony  at  its  most  critical  period 

141 


The  Italian  in  America 

and  began  the  practice  of  his  profession  in  San  Francisco 
as  a  surgeon  in  1880.  His  competence  was  so  pronounced 
that  from  the  start  his  income  was  very  large,  and  in  the 
third  year  of  his  practice  it  reached  the  amount  of  $34,000. 
A  large  extension  of  the  establishments  of  the  same 
Association  has  been  made  at  Madera  in  Southern  Cali 
fornia,  one  hundred  and  eighty-four  miles  from  San  Fran 
cisco.  Here  2,000  acres  of  rich  soil  are  now  producing 
ajpout  five  million  pounds  of  grapes  annuallyTand  there 
isjmother  completely  equippedwinerv^where  portTsherrv 
Muscat  and  Angelica  and  othersweet  wines  of  high  quality 
are  made  ««  w^ll  **  q  /wigidflya"^  amount  of  brandyl  The 
Madera  establishment  has  been  connected  by  a  special  rail 
way  branch  with  the  town,  four  miles  distant,  and  is 
reported  to  possess  machinery  for  grape-crushing  and 
brandy-making  unexcelled  by  any  in  the  world. 
/At  harvest  time  two  hundred  persons  are  employed, 
according  to  Signor  Kossi's  latest  report.  In  the  other 
months  of  the  year  from  forty  to  fifty  Italians  do  the 
requisite  work,  receiving  on  an  average  wages  of  from 
$1.25  to  $1.50  per  day  in  addition  to  lodging  and  food. 
The  meals  are  said  to  be  very  abundant,  the  workmen 
getting  three  a  day  in  which  meat,  bread,  eggs,  vegetables 
and  wine  are  served.  There  is  no  limitation  to  the  amount 
of  wine  allowed,  but  any  workman  who  gets  drunk  is  dis 
charged,  though  this  happens  very  rarely  .Jin  the  vast 
cellars  of  this  establishment  there  are  casks  of  a  capacity 

142 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 


of  150,000  litres.  Outside  its  own  grapes,  the  society 
makes  wine  from  many  others  bought  from  its  neighbors. 
At  the  time  of  its  foundation  the  Association  owning  this 
great  establishment  was  called  The  Italian-Swiss  because 
among  its  stockholders  there  were  some  Swiss  of  the  Can 
ton  Ticino.  To-day  it  is  entirely  It^'an  Jfs  director,  a 
native  of  Piedmont,  is  reported  to  be  undoubtedly  a 
most  competent  specialist  not  only  in  the  cultivation  of  ./ 
the  vines  but  also  in  the  production  and  maturing  of 
wine. 

rthe  remarkable  success  of  this  Association  is  of  far- 
reaching  influence  and  valuejn  its  demonstration  of  the 
feasibility  of  producing  wines^oj  high  qnai1itfy_jn_  this 
country  on  a  great  scale,  and  of  extending  a  great  field 
-of  employment  for  which  the  Italian  immigrant  labor  is 
particularly  adapted.^  Other  undertakings  of  the  same 
kind  with  which  Italians  have  been  more  or  less  fully  iden 
tified  have  achieved  an  almost  equally  gratifying  measure 
of  success.  Perhaps  more_than  any  other  State  in 
IlTiinn^  j^ajiforniaresembles  tltaly  in  cEmal 
itj&Jiatural  that  the  vineyard  developments  there  should 
firs*-  hfl.vfl  hflftTi  jmshed  on  a  great  scale  by  Italian  labor. 


There  is  not  a  Calif  ornian  valley  to-day  where  there  isjoojb 
aldozen  or  more  Italian  farms,  jinn*  ^rr^a-v^fi  nT*  vineyards. 


of  Italians  are  now  employed  a,nd  pre 


lerred  by  American  farmers.     The  truck  farmers  around 
the  Californian  cities  are  mngf.ly  Titian  T  and  their  sue- 


143 


The  Italian  in  America 

cess  in  every  variety  of  farming  employment  in  that  State 

now  indisputable. 

, ' 

te  reckoning  of  the  number  of  Italians  who,  with 

scarcely  an  exception,  are  thriving  in  the  State,  which 
was  prepared  by  the  Italian  Chamber  of  Commerce  of 
San  Francisco  in  189T,  is  greatly  in  excess  of  the  latest 
national  census  returns,  as  all  persons  of  Italian  descent 
born  in  this  country  are  included.  This  report  states  that 
45,625  Italians  were  then  living  in  the  56  counties  of 
(/  California,  and  that  almost  all  of  them  were  engaged  in 
agriculture,  a  convincing  proof  that  the  drift  to  the  towns 
and  to  other  pursuits  was  not  uncontrollable.  They  were 
credited  with  owning  2,726  farms,  orchards,  vineyards, 
ranches,  etc.,  and  there  were  in  addition  837  Italian  busi 
ness  concerns  with  a  capital  of  $17,908,300.^7 

The  particular  adaptability  of  the  Italians  to  the  rising 
\  requirements  for  labor  in  the  cotton,  rice  and  sugar-cane 
'  districts  is  becoming  more  generally  recognized.  Already 
there  is  a  marked  preference  for  Italian  in  place  of  negro 
labor  on  the  sugar-cane  plantations  of  Louisiana  and  Mis 
sissippi  The  system  of  employment  is,  in  the  main,  ex 
cellent.  The  plantations  are  often  divided  into  separate 
tracts,  each  assigned  to  a  separate  family  for  cultivation. 
A  fixed  rent  is  placed  on  the  land  and  the  necessary  ani 
mals  and  tools  for  cultivation  are  provided  by  the  pro 
prietor,  who  furnishes  also,  when  required,  an  advance 
of  provisions  for  the  season  or  the  guarantee  of  credit  to 

144 


3 


Farm  and  Plantation 

the  necessary  extent  at  the  nearest  supply  store.  At  the 
end  of  the  season  he  buys  the  sugar  cane  at  market  rates 
and  pays  over  the  price  to  the  laborers,  having  first  de 
ducted  his  rent  and  advances.  This  is  an  incitement  to 
the  best  feasible  production  and  seems  preferable  on  the 
whole  to  the  metayer  or  half -share  system,  as  the  laborer 
is  thus  assured  of  obtaining  all  that  he  earns  if  the  ac 
counting  is  fair,  and  this  is  well  guaranteed  by  the  com 
petition  for  labor  and  the  desire  to  hold  a  good  cane- 
grower  continuously. 

Thousands  of  Italians  are  now  going  yearly  from  our 
Central  and  Northern  States,  as  well  as  directly  from  Italy, 
to  these  plantations  in  the  season  for  cane-cutting  to  assist 
the  cultivators  in  the  harvest  and  returning  in  spring  to  ,  > 
other  employment  in  the  Northern  States.  Most  of  these 
Italians  come  from  Sicily  or  Southern  Italy,  and  nothing 
seriously  objectionable  is  noted  in  their  character  and 
work.  In  fact,  they  have  proved  themselves  to  be  excep 
tionally  reliable  in  their  engagements  and  industry,  and 
their  services  have  practically  become  indispensable. 

In  a  previous  chapter  it  has  been  shown  that  the  growth 
of  cotton  in  Southern  Italy  has  been  largely  advancing  of 
late  years.  A  noteworthy  illustration  of  the  adaptability 
of  the  Southern  Italian  to  this  branch  of  agriculture  and 
of  the  natural  method  by  which  he  may  be  diverted  to  it 
is  given  in  the  founding  of  the  colony  of  Bryan  in  Brazos 
County,  Texas,  before  described.  About  twenty-five 

145 


The  Italian  in  ^America 

years  ago  some  Sicilians  were  hired  to  work  on  the  main 
branch  of  the  Houston  and  Texas  Eailroad.  When  the 
work  to  which  they  had  been  called  had  been  finished 
they  were  induced  to  buy  some  land  on  the  Brazos  River, 
which  was  sold  cheaply  because  it  was  subject  to  inunda 
tion,  though  otherwise  desirable.  Their  undertaking  was 
profitable  almost  from  the  outset,  and  in  subsequent 
years  the  addition  of  relatives  and  friends  has  swelled  the 
numbers  in  the  colony  to  over  two  thousand,  cultivating 
both  cotton  and  corn  with  signal  success. 

In  the  neighborhood  of  Greenville,  Mississippi,  on  the 
line  of  the  Illinois  Central  Railroad,  there  is  another  group 
of  cotton  plantations  and  truck  farms  all  owned  and  success 
fully  operated  by  Italians,  now  numbering  from  seventy 
to  eighty  families.  In  the  late  report  of  Inspector  Rossi 
all  these  settlers  were  credited  with  "  note  worthy  gains, " 
and  all  were  said  to  enjoy  good  health,  "  except  for  the 
inconvenience  of  some  malarial  fever  to  which  they  were 
subject  in  the  months  of  August  and  September."  This 
local  and  temporary  fever  is  the  only  noted  drawback  to 
settlement  in  the  Yazoo  Delta,  athat  most  spacious  valley" 
of  two  millions  of  acres  lying  between  the  Mississippi  and 
Yazoo  rivers  which,  as  the  official  inspector  reports,  "is 
truly  of  extraordinary  fertility." 

It  is  indeed  probable  that  this  delta  contains  the  richest 
undeveloped  agricultural  territory  in  the  world,  and  its 
certain  yield  when  cultivated  is  becoming  so  widely  ap- 

146 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

predated  that  land  now  purchasable  at  from  ten  to  fifteen 
dollars  per  acre  will  before  long  be  quadrupled  in  market 
value  at  least.  The  " inconvenience  of  fever"  can  be 
successfully  overcome  by  simple  precautions  which  expe 
rienced  settlers  now  take  and  which  should  be  insistently 
urged  upon  all  newcomers,  especially  the  Italians,  who 
are  apt  to  be  imprudently  neglectful  of  the  first  principles 
of  healthful  living.  This  was  particularly  observed  by 
an  intelligent  Italian  settler  on  the  great  plantation  orig 
inally  founded  by  Austin  Corbin  and  Prince  Ruspoli,  then 
Mayor  of  Rome,  at  Sunny  side  on  the  banks  of  the  Mis 
sissippi,  some  twenty  miles  below  Greenville.  "  Our 
countrymen  settled  here,"  he  stated  to  the  inspector,  "  do 
not  take  hygienic  precautions  of  any  kind.  They  will 
not  boil  their  drinking  water,  and  in  the  morning  they 
walk  barefooted  in  the  dew."  It  does  not  seem  credible 
that  this  recklessness  should  be  stubbornly  persisted  in  if 
the  Italian  settlers  and  newcomers  are  properly  warned 
and  impressed,  and  it  would  be  a  grievous  error  if  the 
grand  opening  in  this  virgin  field  should  be  stupidly  passed 
by  through  any  ill-grounded  prejudice  or  apprehension. 

The  attraction  of  this  region  for  Italian  colonization 
and  its  assurance  of  success  are  demonstrated  in  particular, 
upon  the  Sessions  plantation  in  Coahoma  County,  Miss 
issippi,  about  eighty  miles  from  Memphis.  Here  a  dozen 
Italian  families  have  been  residing  for  years  who  are  cul 
tivating  cotton  fields  on  "half  shares."  The  heads  of 

147 


The  Italian  in  "America 

these  families  reported  to  Inspector  Rossi  that  they  were 
well  contented,  but  that,  in  general,  after  some  years  of 
experience  with  the  " half-share"  system,  the  Italian 
preferred  to  acquire  lands  to  cultivate  for  his  own  account. 
This  is  natural  and  usually  feasible.  The  lack  of  school 
facilities  and  the  high  cost  of  medical  aid  owing  to  the 
distance  of  the  plantation  from  the  nearest  town  were 
the  only  noted  complaints  here,  both  of  which  may  readily 
be  remedied  through  the  willingness  of  the  owner  of  the 
plantation  to  take  immediately  two  hundred  Italian  fam 
ilies  on  half  shares.  He  greatly  preferred  Italian  labor 
from  his  experience  to  that  of  the  negro. 

The  largest  settlement  of  Italians  in  this  region  on  the 
notable  Austin  Corbin  plantation  at  Sunny  side  is  of  pecu 
liar  interest  in  the  opportunity  that  it  affords  for  the  direct 
comparison  of  the  efficiency  of  Italian  and  negro  labor 
working  under  absolutely  equal  conditions  on  the  same 
plantation.  This  plantation  is  now  operated  under  lease 
from  the  Corbin  estate  by  Mr.  C.  B.  Crittenden  and  Mr. 
Leroy  Percy  of  Greenville,  Mississippi.  There  are  about 
11,000  acres  in  the  plantation,  nearly  half  of  which  are 
in  cultivation  for  the  production  of  cotton.  The  cotton 
fields  are  worked  by  about  ninety  Italian  families,  and 
substantially  the  same  number  of  negro  families.  The 
greater  part  of  the  Italian  families  are  natives  of  the 
Marches  in  Italy,  and  form  a  colony  numbering  about 
five  hundred  in  all.  A  young  priest  from  the  Marches 

148 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

came  to  the  colony  last  year  as  curate  in  response  to  a 
request  from  the  Bishop  of  Arkansas  to  the  Bishop  of 
Sinigaglia. 

It  was  reported  to  Signor  Rossi  by  Mr.  Crittenden  that, 
with  a  single  exception,  every  family  on  the  plantation 
was  working  successfully. 

The  plan  of  operation  is  substantially  as  follows:  At 
the  beginning  of  the  season  an  account  is  opened  with 
each  tenant  at  the  plantation  store.  He  is  first  charged 
up  with  $7.00  per  acre  rental  for  as  many  acres  as  the 
family  judge  they  can  cultivate.  For  each  mule  supplied 
to  the  tenant  a  rental  of  $25  per  year  is  charged,  and  there 
is  a  small  additional  rental  for  the  use  of  machinery.  If 
a  bill  for  medical  attendance  has  been  incurred  during 
the  year  that  is  also  charged  in  the  account,  and  all  sup 
plies  necessary  for  the  house  and  barn  are  included. 

At  the  end  of  the  season  cotton  is  purchased  by  the 
planters,  and  if  the  cotton  crop  amounts  to  more  than  is 
shown  on  the  ledger  account  for  advances,  the  tenant  gets 
a  check  on  the  bank  for  the  difference.  The  following 
figures  are  taken  direct  from  the  ledger  showing  the  net 
return  to  eight  separate  Italian  families  for  the  year  1903 : 

One  family  that  worked  20  acres  in  cotton  received  a  check  for  $517  00 
Another  family  that  worked  19  acres  in  cotton  received  a 

check  for 714  59 

Another  family  that  worked  33  acres  in  cotton  received  a 

check  for 1,211  36 

Another  family  that  worked  30  acres  in  cotton  received  a 

check  for 579  60 

149 


The  Italian  in  America 

Another  family  that  worked  14  acres  in  cotton  received  a 

check  for $512  98 

Another  family  that  worked  17  acres  in  cotton  received  a 

check  for 738  15 

Another  family  that  worked  30  acres  in  cotton  received  a 

check  for 1,142  05 

Another  family  that  worked  35  acres  in  cotton  received  a 

check  for 1,358  63 

One  of  the  managers  of  this  plantation,  Mr.  Leroy 
Percy,  reports  in  the  Southern  Farm  Magazine  (May, 
1904)  that  some  of  the  Italians  have  been  upon  the  plan 
tation  for  years,  and  that  the  number  is  increasing  yearly. 
The  managers  i '  advanced  to  the  Italians  upon  the  prop 
erty  during  the  past  year  $4,000  or  $5,000,  with  which 
they  brought  over  their  friends  and  relatives  from  Italy,  and 
all  of  which  was  paid  back  by  them  out  of  the  past  crop. 

"As  growers  of  cotton  they  are  in  every  respect  superior 
to  the  negro.  They  are  industrious  and  thrifty,  though 
the  present  generation  will  not  develop  the  land-owning 
instinct ;  they  all  dream  of  returning  to  Sunny  Italy.  The 
property  is  worked  about  one-half  by  negroes  and  one- 
half  by  Italians.  There  doesn't  seem  to  be  any  race  antag 
onism  between  them  and  no  race  mixture. 

"  The  Italians  make  a  profit  of  $5.00  out  of  a  crop  where 
the  negro  makes  $1.00,  and  yet  the  negro  seems  to  be 
perfectly  satisfied  with  his  returns.  No  spirit  of  emula 
tion  is  excited  by  the  superior  work  or  prosperity  of  his 
Italian  neighbor.  We  had  one  of  them  recently  return 
to  Italy  with  more  than  $8,000  in  cash,  never  having 

150 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

worked  more  than  thirty  acres  of  land,  leaving  behind 
him  a  family  to  work  the  land  and  with  sufficient  money 
to  provide  themselves  for  another  year." 

The  increase  of  the  negroes  in  the  South  at  large,  Mr. 
Percy  states,  "  is  entirely  insufficient  to  meet  the  increased 
demands  upon  them  created  by  the  double  tracking  and 
improving  of  roads,  the  increase  in  oil  mills,  saw  mills, 
and  similar  enterprises,  and  the  increasing  demand  for 
labor  to  clear  up  the  land,  greatly  stimulated  as  this  is 
by  the  present  prices  of  cotton." 

The  problem  that  must  be  solved  in  the  Mississippi  delta, 
in  his  view,  "is  the  obtaining  of  some  other  labor  to  do 
what  the  present  race  of  negroes  is  unable  to  do.  The 
only  practical  solution  to  the  problem  that  offers  itself 
to  my  mind  is  the  encouragement  of  the  immigration  of 
Italians. ' '  In  conclusion,  he  affirms  again  with  emphasis : 
"  If  the  immigration  of  these  people  is  encouraged,  they 
will  gradually  take  the  place  of  the  negro  without  there 
being  any  such  violent  change  as  to  paralyze  for  a  gen 
eration  the  prosperity  of  the  country." 

Probably  the  most  acute  investigation  and  forecast  of 
Italian  labor  in  the  cotton  fields  of  the  South  has  been 
made  by  Alfred  Holt  Stone,  who  reports  his  conclusions 
in  a  recent  number  of  the  South  Atlantic  Quarterly 
under  the  caption,  "  The  Italian  Cotton  Grower;  The 
Negro's  Problem."  It  might  fairly  be  assumed  that  in 
no  section  of  the  South  is  negro  labor  more  firmly  en- 

151 


The  Italian  in  rAmerica 

trenched  than  in  the  riparian  lands  of  the  Mississippi  and 
its  tributaries,  in  Arkansas,  Mississippi  and  Louisiana. 
Here  the  negroes  outnumber  the  whites  in  the  proportion 
of  from  three  or  four  to  one  to  more  than  fifteen  to  one. 
"  Every  condition  of  climate,  soil  and  economic  condition 
tended,"  as  Mr.  Stone  observes,  "to  render  absolute  the 
hold  of  the  negro  agriculturist."  Yet  Italian  cotton 
growers  have  already  entered  this  field  of  negro  monopoly, 
and  their  assured  advance  has  already  demonstrated  the 
marked  superiority  of  Italian  labor.  In  the  course  of  a 
year  or  two  Mr.  Stone  reports  that  they  become  more  in 
telligent  cultivators  than  the  negroes.  They  work  more 
carefully  and  constantly.  Tenants,  like  the  negroes,  they 
keep  the  fields  and  premises  in  so  much  better  condition 
that  a  passerby  may  see  at  a  glance  whether  the  occupant 
is  an  Italian  or  a  negro.  The  fields  of  the  latter  are  half 
cultivated,  his  fences  broken  down,  his  garden  choked  with 
weeds.  From  his  personal  experience  in  the  cultivation 
of  plantations  in  which  he  is  interested  as  an  owner,  he 
says  that  it  seems  hopeless  to  try  to  induce  negro  tenants 
to  keep  the  premises  in  good  order  and  repair. 

Of  Italian  labor,  on  the  other  hand,  on  these  and  the 
like  plantations,  Mr.  Stone  bears  expert  witness.  "  From 
the  garden  spot  which  the  negro  allows  to  grow  up  in 
weeds,  the  Italian  will  supply  his  family  from  early  spring 
until  late  fall,  and  also  market  enough  largely  to  carry 
him  through  the  winter.  I  have  seen  the  ceilings  of  their 

152 


On  Farm  and  Plantation 

houses  literally  covered  with  strings  of  dried  butter  beans, 
peppers,  okra  and  other  garden  products,  while  the  walls 
would  be  hung  with  corn,  sun-cured  in  the  roasting  ear 
stage.  In  the  rear  of  a  well-kept  house  would  be  erected 
a  woodshed,  and  in  it  could  be  seen  enough  firewood, 
sawed  and  ready  for  use,  to  run  the  family  through  the 
winter  months.  These  people  didn't  wait  till  half  frozen 
feet  compelled  attention  to  the  question  of  fuel  and  then 
tear  down  a  fence  to  supply  their  wants.  Nor  would  they 
be  found  drifting  about  near  the  close  of  each  season  in 
an  aimless  effort  to  satisfy  an  unreasoned  desire  to ( move,' 
to  make  the  next  crop  somewhere  else." 

In  his  own  relatively  thickly  settled  country,  where 
the  land  suitable  for  cultivation  has  been  so  rigidly 
monopolized  and  so  grudgingly  yielded  to  small  proprie 
tors,  the  Italian  has  been  forced  by  the  experience  of 
centuries  to  make  the  most  of  every  inch  of  his  ground, 
and  this  inured  habit  persists  in  his  practice  in  this  coun 
try.  WVmj  jg  ior>  QT^]]  for  thft  plpw  IIP,  p.nlf.iva.f.fts  with  a 
ho&  He  sows  down  to  thfi  wflitiP-v?g  ft4gft  Mr.  Stone 
has  seen  Italians  c '  make  more  cotton  per  acre  than  the 
negro  on  the  adjoining  cut,  gather  it  from  two  to  four 
weeks  earlier,  and  then  put  in  the  extra  time  in  earning 
money  by  picking  in  the  negro's  field." 

The  adaptability  of  the  Italian  to  work  in  the  rice  fields 
is  no  less  certain  than  his  desirability  to  meet  the  demands 
of  the  sugar  cane  and  cotton  planters.  Many  Italians  are 

153 


The  Italian  in  America 

now  engaged  in  the  culture  of  rice,  in  the  rice  fields  of 
South-eastern  Texas,  and  the  extension  of  encouragement 
in  feasible  ways  is  all  that  is  required  to  attract  Italians 
very  largely  to  the  opportunities  open  in  this  and  other 
Southern  states. 

Of  course  any  large  displacing  of  negro  labor  or  consid 
erable  influx  of  Italian  immigrants  into  the  "  black  belts  " 
of  the  South  will  be  necessarily  the  outcome  of  years  of  im 
migration,  if  effected  at  all.  The  industrious  negro  need 
have  no  fear  that  his  labor  will  be  supplanted  by  any 
possible  influx  in  a  way  to  threaten  his  employment  or 
progress.  It  will  be  a  positive  advantage,  on  the  other 
hand,  to  the  hard  working  negro  as  well  as  to  the  white 
planters  of  the  South,  if  the  lazy  and  shiftless  negro  should 
be  forced  by  such  competition  to  steadier  work  and  to 
habits  of  economy  and  rational  prudence.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  uncultivated  area  lying  open  for  entry  and  prof 
itable  production  is  still  so  vast,  and  the  demand  for  the 
products  of  the  South  so  far  outruns  the  supply  that  there 
is  no  likelihood  of  any  pressure  of  competition  from  the 
influx  of  Italian  or  other  immigrant  labor,  for  years  to 
come,  sufficient  to  effect  any  material  regeneration  in  the 
industry  or  life  of  the  negro.  The  most  that  can  sanely 
be  hoped  for  is  the  relief  of  the  South  from  entire  de 
pendence  on  the  shaky  and  insufficient  prop  of  negro  labor 
and  the  mingling  of  sufficient  white  settlers  to  dissipate 
somewhat  the  hanging  cloud  of  negro  dominance  and 
assure  a  progress  otherwise  unattainable.  ELIOT  LORD. 

154 


CHAPTEK   VIII 

RISING   DEMAND   FOE   ITALIAN   IMMIGRANT   LABOR 

In  view  of  the  proven  adaptability  of  the  Italian  here, 
even  under  adverse  conditions,  for  varied  occupations  and 
specially  for  intensive  farming,  there  can  be  no  question 
ing  of  a  rising  demand  for  his  labor  except  upon  the  baldly 
jealous  assumption  that  the  labor  supply  of  the  country 
exceeds  its  demand  and  that  any  importation  of  labor  will 
necessarily  displace  American  laborers  now  employed  and 
narrow  the  opportunities  of  those  seeking  employment. 
This  assumption  is  often  a  bitter  contention  of  labor  unions^ 
but  it  cannot  bear  submission  to  the  opposition  of  facts. 

Let  it  simply  be  recalled  that  little  Belgium  in  propor 
tion  to  its  area  is  supporting  now  a  population  to  the  square 
mile  twenty-five  times  as  large  as  the  United  States,  with 
out  groaning  audibly  under  the  pressure.  The  Lone  Star 
State  alone,  in  this  country,  has  double  the  area  of  Italy, 
yet  it  is  maintaining  a  population  to-day  only  one-tenth  as 
great.  To  extend  the  comparison  broadly,  it  may  be  noted 
that  the  average  density  of  population  in  the  United  States 
is  only  one-fourteenth  of  the  density  of  population  per 
square  mile  in  Italy.  Yet.  Tta.]y  is  now  coTn.pla.mjng  of 

155 


} 


The  Italian  in  'America 

the  drain  of  its  working  force  by  immigration,  though  in 
natural  resources  and  means  of  development  it  cannot 
bear  comparison  for  a  moment  to  our  own  prolific  and 
wealthy  country.  Temporarily  strained  and  distressful 
conditions  and  the  existence  of  a  few  congested  centres 
offer  no  substantial  grounds  for  any  contention  of  over 
population  or  an  overplus  of  labor  in  our  country  at  large. 
The  sanely  economic  remedy  for  these  local  and  occasional 
evils  assuredly  lies  in  the  perfecting  of  a  better  distribu 
tion- — not  in  the  choking  off  of  the  productive  flow  of  labor 
for  our  national  development. 

If  the  existence  of  open  ground  for  this  distribution 
and  profitable  employment  is  still  questionable  in  the  mind 
of  anybody,  let  him  examine  as  a  single  object  lesson  the 
proportion  of  unimproved  to  improved  land  in  the  South. 
This  was  lately  emphasized  with  striking  force  in  the 
speech  of  Hon.  Wyatt  Aiken  of  South  Carolina  in  the 
House  of  Bepresentatives,  April  22,  1904,  in  support  of 
his  bill  (H.  E.  14833)  authorizing  the  Commissioner- 
General  of  Immigration  to  establish  an  information  bureau 
on  Ellis  Island  "  for  the  bettor  nnliVhtpn merit,  of  immi 
grants  and^^rer-their  better  distribution  throughout  this 
land."  "  The  land  area  of  the  South,"  he  observed,  "  is 
585,310,000  acres."  "  In  1900  the  total  farm  acreage  was 
387,690,426  acres.  The  total  improved  acreage  was  only 
145,185,599.  This  leaves  about  242,000,000  acres  of 
farm  lands  to  be  put  into  profitable  cultivation." 


Rising  Demand  for  Italian  Immigrant  Labor 

"  The  unimproved  farm  lands  of  the  South  give  a 
greater  area  for  settlement  and  cultivation  than  the  total 
area  of  Texas,  Louisiana,  and  Arkansas  combined.  Over 
110,000,000  acres  of  this  land  lies  east  of  the  Mississippi 
River,  and  there  is  comparatively  a  small  amount  of  it 
which  is  not  available  for  crops  of  some  kind.  For  diver 
sity,  quantity,  and  quality  of  productions  the  Southern 
States  are  unsurpassed.  Mr.  Wilson,  Secretary  of  Agri 
culture,  after  touring  the  South,  said :  '  No  section  of  the 
world  offers  such  inducements  for  diversified  farming; ? 
and  he  predicted  a  future  for  that  section  such  as  has  not 
been  witnessed  before  in  this  country." 

"  That  our  people  grow  cotton  almost  exclusively  is  due 
to  the  fact  that  at  prevailing  prices  it  is  the  most  profit 
able  and  merchantable  crop  that  is  planted.  Where  the 
fanner  turns  his  attention  to  diversified  crops,  the  results 
compare  favorably  with  the  best  efforts  of  farmers  with 
out  this  region." 

As  to  the  character  of  immigration  desired  or  the  nation 
alities  particularly  adaptable  to  the  needs  of  the  South, 
Mr.  Aiken  further  remarked,  "  until  lately,  considerable 
prejudice  existed  against  the  Italian,  but  with  most  favor 
able  testimony  in  his  behalf  from  Georgia,  Louisiana,  and 
a  number  of  other  Southern  States,  our  people  look  with 
a  great  deal  more  favor  on  these  hardy,  industrious  agri 
culturists." 

If  it  be  conceded  that  undeniable  statistics  demonstrate 

157 


The  Italian  in  America 

the  relative  paucity  of  population  to  the  square  mile  in 
this  country  and  the  vast  extent  of  lands,  yet  unimproved 
and  open  for  development,  it  may  still  be  urged  that  the 
influx  of  immigration  in  recent  years  exceeds  our  capacity 
to  handle  and  distribute.  This  is  indeed  a  common  conten 
tion  of  alarmists,  who  seemingly  prefer  sensation  to  facts. 
A  single  punch,  such  as  the  one  lately  given  by  the  "Phila 
delphia  Record/7  is  sufficient  to  smash  the  hollow  shell 
of  contention.  The  "  Record  "  observes  editorially  (June 
21,  1904),  "  whether  from  mera  carelessness  or  from  de 
sign,  the  most  exaggerated  and  false  assertions  are  made 
concerning  the  great  flood  of  immigration,  as  if  the  like 
had  never  before  been  witnessed  in  the  history  of  this 
country.  During  the  years  1880,  1881,  1882  and  1883  the 
total  immigration  to  the  United  States  amounted  to  2,519,- 
202  persons.  During  the  last  four  years  the  total  number 
of  immigrant  arrivals  was  2,442,279. 

"  Twenty  years  ago  the  population  of  the  United  States 
amounted  to  50,000,000,  and  now  it  is  about  80,000,000, 
exclusive  of  the  Philippines.  So  the  immigration  rela 
tively  is  not  nearly  so  great  now  as  it  was  in  the  former 
period.  But  this  is  not  all.  Twenty  years  ago  compara 
tively  few  immigrants  returned  to  their  native  land  be 
cause  of  the  time  and  cost  of  the  voyage.  Now  they  are 
swiftly  carried  back  in  great  numbers  by  every  European 
steamer,  some  to  stay,  and  some  for  a  longer  or  shorter 
visit.  When  the  balance  comes  to  be  struck,  the  annual 

158 


Rising  Demand  for  Italian  Immigrant  Labor 

increase  of  immigrant  population  is  very  small  compared 
with  that  of  former  years." 

A  noted  fluctuation  ranging  only  from  one  year  to 
another  is  not  usually  of  any  material  account  as  a  measure 
of  the  flow  of  immigration,  but,  in  view  of  any  possible 
swell  of  apprehension,  without  examination  of  facts,  it 
may  be  well  to  note  the  marked  falling  off  of  immigration 
to  this  country  and  the  increase  in  emigration  in  compara 
tive  records  of  the  first  six  months  of  1904  and  1903. 
The  official  bulletin  of  the  North  Atlantic  Steamship  Con 
ference  shows  that  between  January  1st  and  June  17  of 
the  latter  year,  118,484  fewer  passengers  came  here  in  the 
steerage  of  the  various  lines  than  for  the  same  period  last 
year.  There  was  further  a  noted  increase  of  31,538  steer 
age  passengers  sailing  from  the  port  of  New  York  during 
the  same  period.  Thus  exact  examination  demonstrates 
that  there  was  really  more  cause  to  apprehend  a  compara 
tive  dearth  of  immigration  than  an  overflow. 

In  face  of  these  facts  there  remains  only  the  rickety 
prop  of  contention,  that,  whether  the  influx  be  great  or 
small,  it  is  no  longer  wanted  in  this  country.  This  h 
been  pushed  even  to  the  utter  disregard  of  the  character  * 
of  the  influx  by  influential  voices  of  opinion.  One  of  the 
most  able  and  dignified  of  these  may  be  cited  as  typical. 
The  well  known  president  of  the  United  Mine  Workers, 
Mr.  John  Mitchell,  has  declared  in  a  recent  address,  "  No 
matter  how  decent  and  self-respecting  and  hard  working 

159 


The  Italian  in  America 

the  aliens  who  are  flooding  this  country  may  be,  they  are 
invading  the  land  of  Americans,  and  whether  they  know 
it  or  not,  are  helping  to  take  the  bread  out  of  their  mouths. 
America  for  Americans  should  be  the  motto  of  every  citi 
zen,  whether  he  be  a  working  man  or  a  capitalist.  There 
are  already  too  many  aliens  in  this  country.  There  is  not 
enough  work  for  the  many  millions  of  unskilled  laborers, 
and  there  is  no  need  for  the  added  millions  who  are  press 
ing  into  our  cities  and  towns  to  compete  with  the  skilled 
American  in  his  various  trades  and  occupations.  While 
the  majority  of  the  immigrants  are  not  skilled  workmen, 
they  rapidly  become  so,  and  their  competition  is  not  of  a 
stimulating  order."  * 

This  strain  of  exclusion  sounds  cracked  in  the  mouth 
the  son  of  an  immigrant.  The  policy  that  he  advocates 
would  have  shut  out  his  father  and  precluded  his  own  birth 
in  this  country  and  the  possibility  of  his  objection  to  the 
sharing  of  its  opportunities.  Moreover,  careful  examina- 
tion  shows  that  his  assumptions  are  incorrect.  The  entry 
of  unskilled  labor  does  not  diminish  the  opportunities  open 
to  American  skilled  labor.  On  the  contrary,  it  greatly 
expands  them. 

The  most  progressive  manufacturing  and  commercial 
cities  in  the  East  are  those  which  have  received  the  great 
est  influx  of  immigration  comparatively  in  recent  years. 
Instead  of  taking  away  the  jobs  and  reducing  the  number 
*  New  York  Times,  January  17,  1904. 
160 


r    "V 


Rising  Demand  for  Italian  Immigrant  Labor 

of  American  native  workmen  employed,  there  is  not  a 
single  instance  in  which  the  influx  has  not  operated  to  en 
large  the  demand  for  American  skilled  labor  and  increase 
the  number  of  skilled  American  workmen  actually  em 
ployed.  The  reliable  provision  of  a  supply  of  unskilled 
labor  has  directly  led  to  the  establishment  of  handlers  and 
converters  of  raw  materials,  thus  affording  a  securer  basis 
for  the  supply  and  development  of  manufactures  in  which 
skilled  labor  constitutes  the  chief  percentage  of  cost. 
Wide  ranging  investigation  demonstrates  that  the  mass  of 
immigrant  labor  in  recent  years  has  not  yet  been  raised 
to  competition  with  skilled  operatives  and  that  their  em 
ployment  is  affording  an  essential  basis  for  the  expansion 
and  maintenance  of  the  manufactures  of  advanced  labor 
products. 

The  application  of  "  raw  "  immigrant  labor,  too,  in  rail 
way  grading  and  extensions  and  in  public  works  of  all 
kinds  necessarily  leads  to  the  expansion  of  industry,  em 
ploying  laborers  in  numbers  far  exceeding  the  total  of 
pioneer  labor  employed.  The  planning  and  execution  of 
railway  development,  for  example,  depend  materially  on 
the  estimated  cost  of  materials  and  labor  and  the  certainty 
of  the  supply  of  both.  The  influx  of  immigrant  labor 
affords  the  only  substantial  assurance  of  the  maintenance 
of  this  supply,  and  the  stoppage  of  this  influx  would  assur 
edly  curtail  railway  building,  road  improvements  and  State 
and  municipal  public  works  throughout  this  country. 


The  Italian  in  'America 

It  is  not  difficult  to  account  for  the  fact  that  immigrants 
of  late  years  have  been  coming  chiefly  from  the  Southern 
rather  than  from  the  Northern  countries  of  Europe.  The 
more  complete  the  educational  system  of  any  country,  the 
greater  the  number  of  skilled  laborers  that  is  produced 
and  the  fewer  the  number  of  unskilled  laborers.  In  the 
United  States,  at  present,  the  number  of  unskilled  laborers 
is  constantly  and  rapidly  decreasing  and  the  like  may  be 
said  of  Germany,  France,  Great  Britain  and  the  Scandin 
avian  countries.  Hence,  the  common  laborers  required 
for  the  unskilled  labor  supply  of  this  country  are  drawn 
naturally  from  those  countries  whose  systems  of  education 
complete  or  where  racial  discrimination 


the  influx  necessarily  rises  in  proportion  to  the  withdrawal 
of  Americans  and  the  northern  races  of  Europe  from  the 
lower  grades  of  labor.  The  ambitious  and  educated  Amer 
ican  will  not  do  the  low  grade  work.  The  English,  Ger 
mans  and  Scandinavians,  and  of  late  years  even  the  Irish, 
have  risen  or  are  rising  above  it.  It  is  therefore  inevit 
able  that  we  must  look  for  an  adequate  supply  of  unskilled 
labor  to  the  countries  whose  inhabitants  are  willing  to  fill 
Y  the  demand  with  the  prospect  before  them  of  steady  em 
ployment  and  certain  advancement  for  themselves  and 
their  children. 

In  practical  confirmation  of  this  position,  it  is  to  be 
noted,  too,  that  there  has  never  been  a  period  in  the  history 
of  this  country  when  the  urgency  of  the  call  for  labor 

162 


Rising  Demand  for  Italian  Immigrant  Labor 

for  the  development  of  our  resources  has  been  so  out 
spoken  and  pronounced.  There  has  been  heretofore  sur 
prisingly  little  organized  or  artificial  encouragement  of 
immigration  to  this  country.  "  The  truth  is,"  as  Dr.  Ed 
ward  Everett  Hale  observed  pointedly,  ten  years  ago,  in  a 
contribution  to  "  The  Social  Economist/'  "  that  the  wave 
of  immigration  has  come  without  our  asking  for  it ;  it  has 
enriched  us  without  our  care,  and,  speaking  for  organiza 
tions,  whether  of  churches,  or  of  States,  we  have  let  it 
alone  with  a  sublime  indifference  which  would  hardly  be 
conceived  possible,  if  it  were  not  everywhere  apparent." 

In  face  of  this  apparent  listlessness,  the  Dominion  of 
Canada  has,  of  late  years,  been  putting  up  an  object  lesson 
in  the  organization  and  determination  of  its  efforts  for  the 
attraction  of  immigration.  The  Canadian  Commissioner 
of  Immigration  reported  in  1903  that  up  to  October  1st, 
122,141  immigrants  settled  in  Manitoba  alone  in  the  pre 
ceding  nine  months,  more  than  double  the  number  of  in 
comers  during  the  same  period  in  1902.  It  was  antici 
pated  in  that  year  that  the  influx  into  the  Canadian  West 
and  Northwest  would  be  doubled,  at  least,  in  1903,  and 
this  expectation  was  fully  realized. 

Yet,  not  content  with  this  influx,  the  Dominion  Govern 
ment  has  been  more  energetic  than  ever  in  its  efforts  to 
attract  immigration.  It  widely  advertised  in  1903  that 
257,410,000  acres  available  for  settlement  still  remained 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Government  and  other  land  agencies 

163 


The  Italian  in  America 

in  Assiniboia,  Alberta,  Saskatchewan  and  Athabasca.  To 
this  should  be  added  the  74,000,000  acres  available  in 
Manitoba,  and  it  mil  be  seen  at  a  glance  how  vast  an  area 
north  of  our  boundary  line  is  now  readily  open  and  even 
clamoring  for  settlement.  Lists  of  Dominion  agents  and 
sub-agents  in  Western  Canada  have  been  scattered  broad 
cast,  and  in  most  of  our  own  Northern  States  there  are 
specially  engaged  agents  who  are  expected  to  circulate  the 
Government  publications  and  other  advertisements  for 
settlers  and  to  promote  in  every  feasible  way  by  their  per 
sonal  effort  an  influx  of  immigration  across  the  line. 

On  the  1st  of  May  in  1904  the  reported  number  of  these 
regularly  commissioned  agents  actively  employed  in  the 
United  States  was  seventy-five.  In  addition  to  this  force 
there  were  several  hundred  sub-agents,  receiving  a  per 
capita  fee  on  the  emigrants  booked  for  Canada  of  $3  for 
each  adult  male,  $2  for  each  adult  female  and  $1  for 
every  child  under  12  years  of  age.  There  were  further 
employed  by  the  Government  about  350  agents  in  Great 
Britain,  receiving  $1.68  for  every  adult  and  84  cents  for 
every  child  booked  for  Canada.  The  total  expenditure  by 
the  Canadian  Government  in  1903  to  promote  immigra 
tion  was  stated  to  be  $642,913.  This  disbursement  may 
be  contrasted  instructively  with  the  outlay  by  our  own 
government  of  not  a  single  dollar  for  this  purpose,  and  the 
fact  that  even  the  expenses  for  the  exclusion  of  undesir 
able  immigrants  are  wholly  defrayed  by  the  entering  im- 

164 


Rising  Demand  for  Italian  Immigrant  Labor 

migrants,  without  imposing  the  charge  of  a  cent  upon  the 
government  or  people  of  this  country. 

Under  the  pointed  head  lines :  "  Canada  Out-Hustles 
Uncle  Sam." — "  Draws  More  Immigrants  from  United 
Kingdom  this  Year  than  U.  S.,"  the  watchful  "  New  York 
Sun  "  noted  the  first  fruits  of  this  outlay  in  a  despatch 
from  its  London  correspondent,  dated  May  8,  1904. 

"  For  the  first  time  on  record  the  emigration  from  the 
United  Kingdom  to  Canada  bids  fair  this  year  to  exceed 
that  to  the  United  States.  Last  year,  says  W.  T.  K. 
Preston,  the  Canadian  Commissioner  of  Emigration  here, 
57,000  persons  emigrated  from  this  country  to  Canada, 
while  to  the  United  States  there  went  67,000.  Thus  far 
this  year  the  number  of  emigrants  who  have  left  these 
shores  for  Canada  is  in  excess  of  that  for  a  like  period  last 
year,  and  in  the  summer  it  is  expected  the  ratio  of  in 
crease  will  be  much  greater. 

"  While  Uncle  Sam  does  nothing  to  attract  emigrants 
from  this  country  Canada  is  hustling  to  get  them,  and 
meeting  with  such  success  that  other  colonies  of  the  empire 
have  been  moved  to  envy  and  are  bestirring  themselves  to 
follow  her  example  and  copy  her  methods." 

"  (  England/  said  Mr.  Preston  to  the  writer,  '  is  the  only 
European  country  possessing  colonies  that  devotes  neither 
efforts  nor  money  to  encouraging  emigration  to  them. 
What  England  won't  do  for  us  Canada  is  doing  for  her 
self.  It  costs  something,  of  course,  but  it  is  the  best  pay- 

165 


The  Italian  in  'America 

ing  investment  that  Canada  ever  made.  Last  year  we 
expended  $300,000  in  working  up  emigration  from  this 
country  to  Canada.  We  distributed  1,500,000  pamphlets, 
kept  a  lot  of  agents  on  the  jump  and  spent  a  pile  of  money 
in  advertising.  But  not  a  dollar  went  in  the  shape  of  pas 
sage  money.  We  are  not  sending  any  deadheads  to 
Canada.'  " 

#####*#-# 

"  Situated  in  Charing  Cross,  in    one  of    the    broadest 

>*       «  J  ----  .!••*..*.!  -  ./  ----  ______  ___  -----  ^- 

vthoroughfares  of  London,  the  Canadian  Government  emi- 
gration_offices  are  admirably  locate^  to, 


and^the  most  is  made  of  the  opportunities.  Besides  the 
big  London  offices,  Canadian  agencies  are  established  in 
Liverpool,  Birmingham,  Glasgow,  Dublin,  Belfast  and 
Cardiff.  Advertising  is  done  on  a  large  scale  and  effect 
ively,  the  alluring  promise  of  '  Free  Farms  for  Willing 
Workers  '  often  extending  across  the  whole  front  page 
of  a  newspaper." 

The  progress  of  this  propaganda  and  a  somewhat  pre 
tentious  formation  at  St.  Paul,  Minnesota,  of  the  Western 
Canada  Immigration  Association,  for  the  purpose  of  stim 
ulating  American  immigration  to  the  prairie  wheat  fields 
of  Canada,  have  seriously  alarmed  our  own  wheat  produc 
ing  States  at  the  drain  of  settlers.  Minnesota  has  already 
taken  steps  to  rebut  this  drain  and  stimulate  immigration 
by  the  holding  of  a  representative  convention  which 
adopted  resolutions  constituting  itself  a  State  Immigration 

166 


Rising  Demand  for  Italian  Immigrant  Labor 

Society  and  appealing  for  the  establishment  of  a  State 
Bureau  of  Immigration.  In  the  able  discussions  of  the  sit 
uation,  a  strong  presentation  was  made  of  the  present  im 
perative  needs  of  Minnesota  for  the  further  development 
of  her  farm  lands  and  the  extension  of  the  diversification 
of  her  agricultural  industries.  It  was  pointed  out  that  in 
fruit  production  in  the  last  decade,  Minnesota  made  the 
greatest  progress  of  any  State  in  the  Union,  according  to 
the  last  census,  and  that  no  other  State  afforded  better 
opportunities  for  the  possible  engagement  of  capital  and 
labor  in  this  line  of  development.  The  amount  of  potatoes 
and  other  vegetables  grown  in  the  State  was  also  increas 
ing  annually  and  the  most  confident  anticipation  was  ex 
pressed  of  the  great  feasible  increase  of  this  product. 

The  call  for  the  development  of  Minnesota's  dairy  pro 
ducts  was  even  more  emphatically  marked. 

"  A  great  empire  in  Northern  Minnesota,"  said  W.  W. 
P.  McConnell,  State  Dairy  and  Food  Commissioner,  "  is 
sending  out  a  Macedonian  cry  and  pleading  for  our  best 
friend,  the  dairy  cow."  He  noted  that  the  average  Min 
nesota  cow  produced  81  pounds  of  butter  annually  12  years 
ago;  in  1902  the  average  was  166  pounds.  There  are  now 
nearly  one  million  cows  in  Minnesota  and  679  creameries 
producing  75,000,000  pounds  of  butter  annually,  having 
the  approximate  value  of  $15,000,000.  This  was  a  grati 
fying  showing;  yet  the  Commissioner  observed  that  Min 
nesota  should  eventually  produce  dairy  products  worth 

167 


The  Italian  in  America 

$100,000,000,  if  her  readily  available  sources  were  devel 
oped. 

This  pronounced  movement  in  Minnesota  for  the  attrac 
tion  of  labor  and  further  development  is  scarcely  less 
marked  in  the  other  Northern  agricultural  States,  and  it 
is  noteworthy  that  the  urged  diversification  of  industries 
appeals  particularly  to  the  possible  services  of  the  immi 
grant  Italian  accustomed  to  intensive  farming  and  pecul 
iarly  adaptable  to  the  production  of  fruit  and  vegetables 
and  dairy  work. 

Tothe  South,  also,  the  attraction  of  emigration,  from 
the  Northern  States  t_  H^^prla  i«  r>f 


in  its  competition  with  Southern^efforts  to  draw  desirable 
settlers  from  the  North.  No  other  section  of  our  country 
has  been  so  slightly  affected  by  foreign  emigration.  Most 
sharply  is  the  contrast  pointed  in  the  "  New  York  Sun  " 
that,  "  in  all  the  eleven  States  of  the  old  Southern  Con 
federacy  there  were  in  1900  less  than  one-half  as  many 
foreign  born  as  there  were  in  the  city  of  New  York  alone, 
and,  of  the  number,  more  than  one-half  were  in  the  single 
State  of  Texas,  and  even  there  the  foreign  born  popula 
tion  was  not  six  per  cent,  of  the  whole."  Yet,  no  other 
part  of  our  country  is  now  so  ardent  in  its  appeal  for 
settlers  and  no  other  is  apparently  so  gravely  in  need  of 
an  influx  of  emigrant  labor.  The  time  has  gone  by  when 
the  South  was  too  poor  to  advance  its  own  development 
rapidly  with  outside  capital.  Its  industries  within  the 

168 


Rising  Demand  for  Italian  Immigrant  Labor 

past  decade  have  been  flourishing  as  never  before.  Its 
rice  crop  increased  from  115,000,000  pounds  in  1898  to 
400,000,000  pounds  in  1903,  and  its  cotton  and  tobacco 
crops  have  advanced  to  proportions  beyond  all  anticipa 
tions.  In  1893  the  cotton  crop  of  the  United  States  was 
6,717,142  bales.  The  cotton  crop  of  1903  was  10,727,- 
559  bales,  marking  an  increase  in  10  years  of  nearly  two- 
thirds.  The  census  report  of  1900  shows  an  increase  in 
the  acreage  of  the  tobacco  crop  in  the  preceding  decade  of 
58.4  per  cent,  and  an  increased  production  of  77.8  per 
cent.  Yet  the  demand  in  both  cases  has  run  far  ahead  of 
the  supply. 

Its  manufacturing  industrial  enterprises  and  establish 
ments  have  expanded  even  more  phenomenally  and,  in 
every  avenue,  its  effective  capacity  for  production  has  far 
outstripped  its  available  labor  supply.  This  has  been 
recognized  for  years  past  by  the  energetic  managers  of 
its  railway  lines  and  its  more  enterprising  landowners, 
and  remarkable  efforts  have  been  put  forth  for  the  attrac 
tion  of  settlement  and  the  development  of  its  resources. 
It  is  only  within  recent  years,  however,  that  the  value  to 
the  South  of  the  direct  attraction  of  foreign  emigration 
has  been  largely  appreciated.  The  promotion  of  settlement 
from  the  native  contribution  from  our  Northern  States 
was  preferred  and  hundreds  of  inquiries  recently  ad 
dressed  by  me  to  leading  landowners  and  the  active  man- 

169 


The  Italian  in  "America 

agers  of  immigration  and  development  associations  marked 
the  continuance  of  this  preference. 

It  is  now  largely  recognized,  however,  that  it  is  hope 
less  to  expect  any  adequate  meeting  of  the  demands  from 
the  South  for  labor  from  any  available  sources  in  other 
States  of  the  Union.  A  determined  resolution  is  manifest 
therefore  to  break  down  any  lingering  prejudice  against 
foreign  immigration  and  to  promote  its  distribution 
through  the  South  by  organized  effort.  The  possession  of 
a  certain  amount  of  capital  is  no  longer  regarded  as  an 
almost  indispensable  requisite.  For  the  poorest  immi 
grant  as  well  as  for  the  established  settler  in  the  ITorth 
the  assurance  of  a  welcome  and  a  profitable  opening  are 
even  now  provided  in  many  sections,  and  this  attraction 
will  soon  be  multiplied. 

Already  a  most  noteworthy  recognition  of  the  peculiar 
adaptability  of  the  Italian  to  the  labor  conditions  of  the 
South  ihas  been  accorded  in  Southern  journals  of  fore 
most  influence  and  standing.  An  authoritative  attestation 
of  his  services  in  the  Raleigh  (N.  C.)  "  Observer/'  Novem 
ber  6,  1904,  is  particularly  comprehensive  and  pithy. 


"  Each  year  the  labor  problem  grows  more  serious  for 
the  Southern  farmer. 

"  The  negro  has  always  constituted  the  South's  prin- 

170 


Rising  Demand  for  Italian  Immigrant  Labor 

cipal  laboring  contingent.  But  his  increasing  deficiency 
makes  it  necessary  for  additional  help  to  be  found.  With 
out  detracting  from  what  is  being  done  by  the  better  class 
of  negro  workers,  it  is  evident  that  the  negro  race  cannot 
wholly  meet  in  quantity  or  quality  the  demands  for  service 
that  must  be  made  on  it  for  proper  development  of  this 
great  section  of  the  country. 

"  In  a  small  way,  a  number  of  experiments  in  other 
kinds  of  labor  have  recently  been  tried  in  Eastern  North 
Carolina.  Finns,  Poles,  Portuguese,  Austro-Hungarians 
and  Italians  have  all  been  introduced  as  laborers.  The 
Italians  have  come  in  the  largest  numbers,  and  though 
often  working  under  unfavorable  conditions,  have  gen 
erally  made  satisfactory  workers.  In  railroad  building  at 
Newbern,  saw-milling  at  Dover,  contract  work  at  Kin- 
ston,  fishing  at  Wilmington,  oyster-canning  at  Beaufort 
and  truck  farming  at  various  points,  they  have  done  so 
well  that  many  are  beginning  to  regard  their  judicious 
introduction  here  as  the  solution  of  the  labor  problem. 

"  In  other  sections  of  the  South,  where  it  has  been  ex 
tensively  tried,  Italian  labor  has  proved  itself  well-nigh 
indispensable  in  the  cultivation  of  the  immense  planta 
tions.  Notably  in  Louisiana,  Alabama  and  Mississippi,  it 
is  an  established  fact  that  the  Italian  workman  is  sought 
for  and  appreciated,  because  he  has  demonstrated  his 
worth  as  a  laborer. 

"  Of  the  success  of  Italian  immigration  to  Louisiana, 

171 


The  Italian  in  America 

some  idea  may  be  gained  from  the  following  letter  written 
last  July  by  C.  L.  Buck,  of  Independence,  La. : 

" '  Twenty  years  ago  land  could  be  bought  in  and 
around  the  town  for  $1  to  $5  per  acre  that  is  now  selling 
readily  at  $25  to  $100  per  acre.  One  tract  here  of  1,500 
acres  sold  twenty-five  years  ago  for  $1,600,  and  only  a 
few  weeks  ago  the  purchaser  sold  200  acres  for  $10,400. 
The  assessed  value  of  lands  in  this  parish  has  been  doubled 
in  the  past  four  years. 

"  '  One  will  ask  what  was  the  principal  cause  of  the  de 
velopment.  The  answer  must  be  the  Italian  immigra 
tion  that  has  come  here  and  improved  the  conditions  in 
respect  to  production.  The  majority  of  farmers  have 
done  away  with  negro  labor.  Why?  Because  they  are 
a  shiftless,  worthless  sort,  whereas  the  Italian  laborer  is 
a  success.  His  sole  object  is  to  make  money,  and  he 
knows  it  must  come  out  of  the  ground;  therefore,  he  is 
always  at  work  when  his  work  is  needed. 

"  '  The  question  of  his  desirability  as  a  citizen  is  often 
asked.  I  can  say  that  thus  far  in  our  twelve  or  fifteen 
years'  experience  with  them,  they  have  given  no  trouble 
to  any  one.  They  are  prompt  to  pay  their  debts  at  the 
stores,  meet  their  paper  at  the  banks  when  due,  and  often 
before.  I  do  not  think  there  is  a  case  on  record  in  this 
parish  where  the  State  has  had  to  prosecute  them  for  a 
crime  or  misdemeanor,  and  that  is  saying  a  great  deal 
when  we  consider  that  there  are  150  to  250  families  liv- 

172 


Rising  Demand  for  Italian  Immigrant  Labor 

ing  here,  and  every  berry  season  there  are  probably  500 
or  more  who  come  to  assist  in  harvesting  the  crops. 
"  '  I  can  speak  from  experience,  and  say  that  thus  far 
formd  t.hp-m  fl-norl    neighbors    and    good  tenants. 
fi   frngfll    aprl    indnfltrinna,    aTiri    when   working   as 
wiling-  to  do  their  part,  and  I  find 


it  a  great  improvement  and  cheaper  than  the  negro  labor 
of  to-day,  that  wants  a  dollar  per  day  for  a  half  dollar's 
worth  of  work.  As  tenants  they  never  take  up  more  at  the 
store  than  will  be  realized  from  the  crops,  as  is  often  the 
case  with  the  negro. 

"  '  After  they  are  here  awhile  they  become  more  or  less 
Americanized,  and  live  better  and  spend  more  money  as 
their  means  justify.  They  are,  generally  speaking,  cleanly 
about  their  houses.  They  are  capable  of  improvement 
in  many  ways,  which  is  not  the  case  with  the  negro;  and 
as  far  as  I  know  here,  they  have  conducted  themselves  in 
a  moral,  law-abiding  way.  I  am  of  course  speaking  of  the 
past  and  present  experience  we  have  had  with  them. 

"  '  As  fruit  and  truck  growers  they  will  be  hard  to  beat, 
and  I  see  no  reason  why  they  cannot  be  used  to  advantage 
for  other  sorts  of  farming.  They  soon  make  fair  to  good 
plough  hands,  though  at  first  they  are  green  about  hand 
ling  a  horse. 

"  They  are  not  hard  to  teach,  as  a  rule.  They  want  to*—** 
make  money,  which  is  their  sole  object,  and  they  try  to  I 
follow  instructions,  and  it  is  inevitable  that  if  they  make  / 

173 


The  Italian  in  America 

any,  the  landlord  will,  too.  This  immediate  section  would 
never  have  been  what  it  is  in  so  short  a  time  without  the 
Italian  labor.  The  price  of  land  is  no  object  if  they  want 
it  and  can  see  their  way  clear  to  make  a  living  on  it.  If 
they  think  they  can  make  a  living  on  10  acres  of  land  and 
have  $1,000,  they  will  try  it,  and  not  think  it  too  much. 

"  '  They  reason  that  it  is  that  much  invested  from 
which  they  can  derive  a  livelihood  arid  have  a  home  be 
sides.  Numbers  of  them  have;  settled  here  on  10-acre 
plots  and  made  a  living  and  saved  up  money,  notwith 
standing  the  fact  that  the  family  was  of  large  size.  So 
far,  we  find  them  peaceful,  law-abiding  citizens  without 
the  dreaded  stiletto.  This  is  giving  a  general  history  of 
them  as  I  know  it.  Of  course,  some  are  more  prosperous 
than  others. ' : 

"  In  Mississippi  thousands  of  Italians  have  been  estab 
lished  in  colonies,  recently  visited  by  Lee  J.  Langley, 
special  correspondent  of  the  (  Manufacturers'  Record/ 
who  says  they  already " '  Own  their  lands,  are  building 
their  houses  and  becoming  equal  to  every  independent 
citizen  of  this  country. ' " 

From  correspondence  and  press  reports  in  hand  the 
facts  stated  in  the  "  Observer  "  appear  to  be  beyond  seri 
ous  dispute.  The  following  extract  from  a  letter  dated 
Nov.  14,  1904,  addressed  to  Mr.  John  J.  D.  Trenor  by 
Andrew  Carnegie,  in  response  to  his  inquiry,  will  be 
recognized  as  exceptionally  authoritative: 

174 


Rising  Demand  for  Italian  Immigrant  Labor 

"  As  the  result  of  experience,  I  rate  the  Italian  highly 
and  consider  him  a  most  desirable  immigrant.  It  is  to 
him  I  look  with  hope  to  settle  more  and  more  in  our 
Southern  States  and  finally  to  grow  more  cotton,  which  is 
already  needed  to  supply  the  world's  wants. 

"  As  long  as  we  can  keep  out  the  immigrants  who  are 
assisted  to  pay  their  passage,  I  think  the  danger  from  im 
migration  largely  imaginary. 

"  I  want  no  better  proof  that  a  man  is  to  be  a  valuable 
citizen  than  the  fact  that  in  Italy  or  in  any  European 
country  he  has  succeeded  in  saving  enough  to  bring  him 
self  and  his  family  to  the  land  of  promise." 

It  may  safely  be  anticipated  that  the  demand  for  Ital 
ian  labor  in  the  South  is  certain  to  expand  with  the  spread 
ing  knowledge  of  Italian  character,  industry  and  endur 
ance.  In  view  of  the  watchful  guardianship  of  thej/ 
Italian  Emigration  Department,  however,  and  the  imper 
ative  need  of  holding  as  well  as  attracting  immigration, 
the  promoters  of  settlement  must  operate  with  good  judg 
ment  and  treat  the  Italian  immigrants  with  scrupulous 
fairness,  or  there  will  certainly  be  no  influx  to  brag  of. 
In  the  latest  report  of  Adolfo  Rossi,  Chief  Inspector  of 
the  Royal  Emigration  Department,  this  conclusion  is  em 
phasized  in  a  way  that  should  warn  every  State  in  our 
Union  not  to  fail  to  protect  the  Italian  in  America  from 
harsh  treatment  and  greedy  impositions.  ELIOT  LOKD. 


175 


CHAPTEE    IX 

THE    CALL    FOR   BETTER   DISTRIBUTION 

It  must  be  clearly  borne  in  mind  that  the  existence  of 
certain  inconveniences  or  even  evils  now  attending  the 
flow  of  the  current  of  immigration  does  not  warrant, 
necessarily,  the  corrective  of  exclusion.  The  swollen  cur 
rent  of  a  stream  may  overflow  the  limits  of  its  bed,  delug 
ing  the  border  lands  with  the  spread  of  swamps,  but  this 
overflow  does  not  prove  that  the  flood  is  necessarily  a 
burden  on  the  surrounding  country  nor  that  a  stoppage 
of  the  flow  of  water  is  the  right  prescription. 

Along  the  Pacific  slope  vast  stretches  of  barren  ground 
are  now  blossoming  and  bearing  fruit  by  the  diversion  of 
freshets  into  myriad  channels  of  irrigation,  and  the  hope 
of  the  arid  plains  beneath  the  Kocky  Mountains  chain 
is  centred  in  the  like  distribution  of  the  water  now  run 
ning  to  waste.  Here  it  is  patent  to  the  dullest  mind  that 
the  proper  treatment  of  an  enriching  overflow  is  not  to 
choke  it  ofe,  but  to  divert  it  intelligently  for  the  service 
of  the  land  that  needs  it. 

Can  it  be  contended  that  the  analogy  is  unfounded — 
that  the  flow  of  productive  water  is  indeed  a  good  thing 

176 


The  Call  for  Better  Distribution 

for  the  country  but  the  entry  of  productive  labor  is  some 
thing  to  be  dreaded  and  forbidden?  Will  this  be  main 
tained  in  view  of  the  nation  which  has  sprung  from  the 
loins  of  the  immigrant  and  grown  in  greatness  and  pros 
perity  so  marvellously  with  the  swelling  tide  of  immigra 
tion  in  the  last  century? 

Who  will  venture  to  question  that  a  healthy,  honest, 
willing  laborer  in  any  field  of  employment  is  an  addition 
to  the  working  capital  and  productive  power  of  a  nation? 
Has  our  growth  reached  the  limit  of  expansion,  or  pos 
sible  utilization  of  working  capital  and  productive  force  ? 
If  not,  why  should  we  shun  now  what  so  many  countries 
have  vainly  sought — the  attraction  to  our  shores  of  new 
workers  to  develop  our  resources?  Little  Belgium  is  not 
groaning  under  the  burden  of  a  population  of  producers 
fully  twenty-five  times  as  great  as  ours  in  proportion  to 
the  national  territory,  yet  we  hear  querulous  protests 
from  time  to  time  that  our  big  country  is  overcrowded 
with  laborers — that  there  is  not  work  enough  in  sight  to 
employ  the  hands  already  outstretched  and  that  immi 
grants  only  come  in  to  take  away  the  jobs  of  our  own 
workmen.  If  this  country  should  be  moved  to  confess 
that  it  is  disposed  to  reject  and  exclude  an  influx  of  work 
ing  capital  because  it  sees  no  way  to  employ  it  and  can 
devise  none,  it  might  study  with  profit  the  economy  of 
New  Zealand. 

There  the  established  Department  of  Labor,  prac- 

177 


The  Italian  in  America 

tically  in  charge  of  its  permanent  head,  Mr.  Edward  Tre- 
gear,  has  regarded  as  its  first  and  chief  duty — "  its  vital 
duty/'  he  calls  it — "  the  practical  task  of  finding  where 
labor  was  wanted  and  depositing  there  the  labor  running 
elsewhere  to  waste."  .  .  .  "  The  means  employed  by  Mr. 
Tregear,"  as  noted  by  Henry  Demarest  Lloyd,  "  are  the 
maintenance  of  a  widely  extended  system  of  agencies  for 
bringing  workers  and  work  together,  a  strict  decentraliza 
tion  of  the  unemployed  by  scattering  them  through  the 
colony,  and  a  refusal  to  give  anything.  Aid  is  furnished 
by  sending  the  worker  to  private  employment  or,  if  to 
public  works,  only  to  such  as  were  necessary  and  repro 
ductive 

"  Two  features  have  characterized  this  policy  from  the 
beginning;  the  men  were  given  nothing  but  a  chance,  and 
no  work  was  made  for  the  sake  of  making  work.  Nothing 
was  undertaken  that  was  not  necessary  and  would  not  be 
profitable  to  the  community.  .  .  .  The  man  had  to 
pay  ultimately  for  everything — for  the  railroad  ticket 
taking  him  and  his  family  to  their  new  home,  for  the  food 
and  shelter  they  had  on  their  way,  for  the  tools  he  found 
ready  for  him,  for  the  tents,  for  everything. 

"  The  experience  of  New  Zealand  does  not  sustain  the 
idea  so  prevalent  that  city  people  and  artisans  cannot 
make  a  living  on  the  land.  Some  of  the  most  successful 
settlers  have  been  men  brought  up  as  tailors  or  shoe- 

178 


The  Call  for  Better  Distribution 

makers  and  workers  in  other  trades  in  the  city  of  London. 
Sailors  and  day  laborers  have  been  successful  too.'7 

It  may  be  a  novel  function  of  government  to  undertake 
the  distribution  of  labor,  but  it  is  none  the  less  more 
rational  than  an  edict  of  exclusion  would  be,  or  the  toler 
ance  of  congestion  and  slums  now  is.  If  there  is  a  con 
servative  shrinking  from  the  resolute  grip  of  ISTew  Zea 
land  in  handling  the  labor  problem  as  a  national  concern 
vitally  affecting  the  public  welfare,  there  should  be,  at 
least,  no  hesitation  in  according  some  co-operation  with 
state,  civic  and  individual  organizations  for  the  better 

distribution  and  utilization  of  the  influx  of  working  cap- 

« 

ital  in  the  person  of  the  immigrant. 

Certainly  our  government  might  go  as  far  as  this,  not 
only  with  entire  propriety  but  without  any  straining  of 
precedent.  In  the  Act  of  1864  expressly  to  encourage 
immigration,  provision  was  made  for  the  collection  and 
dissemination  of  information  in  various  languages  to  pro 
mote  the  choice  and  distribution  of  settlement.  In  pre 
senting  the  bill  then  enacted,  Senator  Sherman  said :  "  If 
official  documents,  prepared  from  official  sources,  could  be 
furnished  to  foreigners  desiring  to  come  to  this  country, 
giving  them  accurate  information  as  to  the  needs  of  labor 
in  this  country,  there  is  no  doubt  that  it  would  encourage 
a  great  deal  of  immigration.'7  The  expense  of  this  pro 
vision,  as  Senator  Sherman  observed,  would  be  practically 
inconsiderable  in  comparison  with  its  certain  benefit  to 

179 


The  Italian  in  America 

the  country.  The  misjudged  repeal  of  this  Act,  in  a  fit 
of  shortsighted  economy  four  years  later,  prevented  the 
proper  development  of  its  benefits  but  it  did  not  contra 
vene  the  sagacious  judgment  and  foresight  of  Senator 
Sherman. 

Objection  to  any  such  provision  to-day  on  the  score  of 
expense  would  not  be  tenable  for  a  moment  in  view  of 
tihe  rolling  up  of  the  "  Immigrant  Fund  "  through  the 
institution  and  increase  of  the  head-tax;  as  any  outlay 
for  this  purpose  would  be  wholly  defrayed  by  the  enforced 
contribution  of  the  immigrants  themselves  for  the  over 
sight  and  regulation  of  their  entry  into  this  country. 
Even  if  it  is  no  longer  desired  to  encourage  immigration, 
in  view  of  the  present  influx,  it  would  be  none  the  less 
advisable  to  make  some  rational  provision  for  the  better 
distribution  of  the  incoming  labor  seeking  openings  for 
employment  in  the  development  of  the  country. 

Through  the  stretch  of  enactments  for  the  prohibition 
of  the  entry  of  immigrants  under  contract,  the  transport 
ing  agencies  <have  been  debarred  even  from  the  circula 
tion  of  ordinary  guide  books  for  immigrants,  presenting 
accurately  the  industrial  conditions  here  and  the  actual 
openings  for  settlement  and  employment.  It  is  incontest 
able  that  the  congestion  so  much  complained  of  along  the 
Atlantic  seaboard  has  been  largely  due  to  the  lack  of  cor 
rect  information  and  channels  of  distribution  that  might 
readily  be  opened  through  a  bureau  of  correspondence. 

180 


The  Call  for  Better  Distribution 

If  private  and  even  State  agencies  cannot  be  trusted  to 
prepare  such  information  and  open  such  channels,  there 
can  be  no  question  of  the  right  of  Congress  to  make  such 
provisions  under  its  constitutional  authorization  to  oper 
ate  for  the  national  welfare. 

The  call  for  this  undertaking  has  been  repeatedly  em 
phasized  by  our  Commissioners  of  Immigration,  and  is 
indeed  expressly  set  forth  in  the  latest  reports  of  the  pres 
ent.  Commissioner  General.  The  lack  of  this  simple  pre 
caution  for  the  avoidance  and  relief  of  congestion  has  been 
remarked  with  surprise  for  years  by  expert  observers  of 
the  flow  of  immigration  and  its  effects.  Ten  years  ago, 
Edward  Everett  Hale  made  particular  note  of  it  in  a  con 
tribution  to  "  The  Social  Economist."  "  When  Mr. 
George  Jacob  Holyoake  was  in  this  country  some  years 
ago,  h©  called  my  attention  to  the  absolute  indifference 
of  the  general  government  to  the  great  tide  of  foreign 
immigration.  He  said  that  the  general  government 
might,  without  much  difficulty,  provide  a  convenient 
manual  which  should  tell  the  ignorant  European  where 
he  wanted  to  go.  If  he  wanted  to  raise  wheat,  it  could 
direct  him  to  a  wheat  country;  if  he  wanted  to  raise 
oranges,  it  could  direct  him;  if  he  wanted  to  skate  or  cut 
ice,  it  could  instruct  him  as  well." 

Dr.  Hale  goes  on  to  say  that  he  has  repeatedly  but  in 
effectually  sought  to  draw  attention  to  this  appeal.  "  The 
truth  is,"  he  observes  pointedly,  "  that  the  wave  of  immi- 

181 


The  Italian  in  'America 

gration  has  come  without  our  asking  for  it ;  it  has  enriched 
us  without  our  care,  and  speaking  for  organizations, 
whether  of  churches  or  of  states,  we  have  let  it  alone  with 
a  sublime  indifference  which  would  hardly  be  conceived 
possible  if  it  were  not  everywhere  apparent. " 

The  only  marked  exception  to  this  indifference  to-day 
has  been  in  the  concentration  of  attention  upon  the  filter 
ing  of  the  flow  of  immigration.  We  have  enacted  and 
enforced  every  rational  precaution,  and  overstrained 
some  to  prevent  the  entry  of  objectionable  immigrants 
and  the  importation  of  any  by  contract  or,  even,  the  assur 
ance  of  employment;  but  the  distribution  and  occupation 
of  the  checked  and  filtered  flow  have  been  almost  utterly 
neglected  as  if  they  were  of  no  concern  to  the  national 
welfare. 

The  chief  remedy  for  congestion  proposed  in  bills  be 
fore  Congress  is  a  further  exclusion  of  immigration,  by 
enacting  a  so-called  "  educational  test  "  of  desirability. 
An  immigrant  may  be  a  skilled  artisan ;  h$  may  be  an  ex 
perienced  farmer,  honest,  industrious,  thrifty,  able  at 
once  to  contribute  to  the  national  productiveness  and  to 
rear  a  family  of  ambitious,  patriotic  young  Americans — 
in  the  eye  of  common  sense  and  reason  a  desirable  settler 
— yet  She  will  be  barred  out  if  he  is  unable  to  read  from 
twenty  to  twenty-five  words  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States.  A  requirement,  rational  if  applied  to  an 
applicant  for  the  voting  franchise,  is  irrationally  imposed 

182 


The  Call  for  Better  Distribution 

to  restrict  the  opportunity  of  using  a  spade  or  an  axe  or  a 
pick  in  the  development  of  this  country  and  to  debar  the 
right  of  life,  liberty  and  the  pursuit  of  happiness  here. 
Hundreds  of  thousands  of  illiterate  immigrants  have  been 
pioneers  of  civilization  here,  piercing  the  pathless  woods, 
opening  the  mines  of  ore  and  transforming  the .  wastes 
to  harvest  lands.  If  the  soil  of  America  is  to  be  re 
served  for  scholars,  Columbus  should  have  been  notified 
not  to  discover  it  with  an  illiterate  crew. 

In  spite  of  the  "  illiterate  "  influx,  the  American  stand 
ard  of  labor  and  living,  broadly  or  nationally  viewed,  has 
been  advancing  persistently  from  decade  to  decade — as 
indisputable  statistics  prove.  Until  this  demonstration  of 
assimilation  and  progress  can  be  upset  by  evidence  that 
will  bear  examination,  there  is  neither  reason  nor  justice 
nor  expediency  in  excluding  honest,  able-bodied  men  and 
women,  who  are  seeking  to  escape  from  distressful  con 
ditions  in  the  Old  World,  and  denying  them  education, 
advancement,  or  even  security  for  life.  '  , 

The  New  South  is  already  giving  object  lessons  to  the 
country  at  large  in  the  successful  attraction  and  utiliza 
tion  of  the  influx  so  heedlessly  reckoned  as  "  undesirable." 
The  Four  States  Immigration  League,  composed  of  rep 
resentatives  of  business  organizations  in  Alabama,  Louis 
iana,  Mississippi  and  Texas,  was  chiefly  incorporated  for/| 
the  purpose  of  devising  ways  and  means  for  securing 
desirable  immigrants  for  the  several  States  represented. 

183 


The  Italian  in  'America 

"  It  was  keenly  realized/'  observed  the  Chattanooga 
"  Times,"  in  October,  1903,  "  that  of  the  enormous  in 
flow  from  the  old  country  during  the  past  twelve  months, 
the  number  seeking  homes  in  the  South  was  ridiculously 
small  and  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  importance  of  the 
country  and  the  inducements  our  productive  fields  hold 
out  to  'home  seekers." 

In  substantial  recognition  of  this  fact,  an  Immigration 
Bureau  was  established  by  the  city  of  Chattanooga  on  its 
own  account,  and  similar  organizations  in  extension  of  the 
aims  of  the  Four  States  League  to  other  States  have  been 
perfected  and  are  fast  multiplying  throughout  the  South 
ern  States.  South  Carolina  and  several  other  States  have 
now  fully  organized,  active  departments  of  agriculture 
and  immigration,  and  the  vigorous  co-operation  of  all 
the  leading  railway  lines  has  been  certainly  assured. 

The  peculiar  adaptability  of  Italian  immigrant  labor 
to  the  requirements  of  the  South  has  already  been  demon 
strated  beyond  question,  as  noted  in  a  preceding  chapter, 
by  many  working  and  successful  illustrations,  and  the 
South  is  fast  awaking  to  the  desirability  of  attracting  the 
laborers  of  this  nationality.  They  are  more  quickly  in 
ured  to  the  climate  than  the  immigrants  from  Northern 
Europe ;  they  soon  become  adept  in  the  cultivation  of  the 
crops  of  the  South,  and  they  have  no  rooted  prejudice  to 
competition  with  negro  labor.  Intermixture  with  negro 
labor  can  usually  be  obviated  by  the  division  of  employ- 

184 


The  Call  for  Better  Distribution 

ment  on  plantations  and  any  necessary  association  of  the 
Italian  whites  with  the  blacks  is  not  precluded  by  any 
race  animosity. 

The  officials  at  Ellis  Island,  who  are  called  upon  to  give 
counsel  or  directions  to  many  thousands  of  immigrants 
yearly,  have  been  pelted  with  letters  during  the  past  year 
from  Southern  railroads,  real  estate  companies,  and  plan 
tations  asking  for  immigrant  help.  One  railroad  company 
alone  gave  notice  that  it  wanted  10,000  families  on  its 
land,  and  would  give  away  homesteads  to  any  who  would 
settle  permanently  along  its  lines.  In  the  competition  of 
these  improvement  associations  for  labor,  a  number^  of 
applicants  deposited  in  New  York  banks  special  funds  to 
be  drawn  upon  to  pay  the  travelling  expenses  of  immi 
grants  who  were  unable  to  pay  their  own  expenses. 

Advantage  was  taken  of  this  pressure  of  application 
last  year  in  the  relief  of  distress  in  the  detention  rooms, 
when  21  immigrants,  so  poor  that  they  would  otherwise 
be  liable  to  become  public  charges,  were  forwarded  to  an 
applicant  at  Memphis,  Tennessee.  The  message  accom 
panying  this  application  was  typical.  "  The  families 
would  be  obliged  to  work  with  me  one  year  in  order  to 
finish  the  cotton  crop;  otherwise  it  would  be  an  entire 
loss  to  me :  We  cannot  pick  up  hands  every  day.  I  con 
sider  this  part  of  the  United  States  (Clarkville,  Miss.) 
the  best  for  a  poor  man.  If  emigrants  object  to  work  side 
by  side  with  negroes,  I  can  say  that  is  not  necessary  ;  each 

185 


The  Italian  in  America 

man  has  the  land  to  himself  and  comes  in  contact  with 
only  the  land-owner.  I  have  no  particular  desire  for  any 
nationality,  only  parties  that  have  been  living  on  farms 
and  are  used  to  farm  work.  If  I  could  be  successful  in 
this  move,  there  could  come  more  than  10,000  families 
and  all  find  good  homes.  In  case  you  can  get  any  fam 
ilies,  no  matter  how  many  at  a  time,  send  them  on.  The 
money  for  transportation  is  at  the  National  Bank  of  Com 
merce  for  you  to  draw  on  as  you  need  it." 

The  particular  immigrants  transported  were  of  Ger 
man  nativity  and  sent  on,  after  consultation,  with  the  ap 
proval  of  the  German  Consulate  in  New  York.  There 
can  be  no  question  that  Italian  immigrants  are  soon  likely 
to  profit  largely  by  this  pressure  from  the  South  and  the 
extension  of  its  provisions  for  distribution  and  settlement. 
There  can  be  no  doubt,  either,  that  intelligently  directed 
efforts  for  the  promotion  of  this  supply  of  labor  would 
meet  a  ready  response  from  Italians  already  settled  here 
in  congested  districts.  It  is  by  these  and  like  means  now 
certainly  extending  that  the  only  really  pressing  problem 
of  immigration,  the  betterment  of  distribution,  is  approach 
ing  its  solution. 

Thus  far,  however,  there  has  been  no  substantial  pro 
vision  for  any  systematic,  comprehensive  and  sustained 
distribution.  The  efforts  to  promote  it  are  chiefly  im 
portant  in  their  demonstration  of  needs  and  openings  and 
the  assurance  of  co-operation,  when  it  is  resolutely  under- 

186 


The  Call  for  Belter  Distribution 

taken,  as  it  should  be,  by  our  national  government.  It  is 
patently  the  view  of  the  present  Commissioner  General 
of  Immigration,  that  further  delay  in  grappling  with  this 
problem  is  intolerable.  In  his  latest  report  he  enforces 
"  the  imperative,  the  immediately  impending  and  rapidly 
augmenting  necessity,  both  on  the  score  of  humanity  and 
self-defence,  of  attempting  a  distribution  of  the  ever  in 
flowing  tide  of  aliens." 

He  recognizes  the  call  for  distribution  in  "  the  millions 
of  untilled  acres  and  the  unsatisfied  demand  for  agricul 
tural  and  other  manual  labor,"  but  the  main  stress  of  his 
appeal  for  action  is  laid  on  the  burdens  and  evils  arising 
from  the  congestion  of  the  influx.  This  undertaking  may 
be  properly  tentative,  at  first,  beginning,  perhaps,  with 
no  more  than  bureaus  of  reliable  information  and  the 
registration  of  applications  for  labor  and  employment  in 
our  principal  ports  of  entry,  but  the  extension  of  service 
may  follow  as  rapidly  as  its  evolution  is  justified  by  well- 
considered  experiments. 

The  chief  blocks  in  the  way  of  success  are  likely  to  be 
the  conservative  questioning  of  any  novel  exercise  of 
power  by  the  national  government,  the  jealousy  and 
rivalry  of  States  and  districts  competing  for  labor  supply, 
the  risk  of  conflict  with  labor  unions,  the  ignorance  and 
prejudice  of  the  immigrants  and  the  dread  of  the  promo 
tion  of  immigration  by  any  effective  provision  for  its  dis 
tribution.  The  undertaking  may  be  opposed,  too,  by 

187 


;J 


The  Italian  in  America 

those  who  measure  the  thrift  and  capacity  of  an  immi 
grant  by  the  extent  of  his  cash  in  hand  and  set  their  faces 
stubbornly  against  "  assisted  immigration/7  in  the  teeth 
of  the  fact  that  a  great  proportion  of  the  immigrants  com 
ing  here  during  the  last  half  century  have  been  "  assisted" 
covertly,  if  not  openly,  without  any  damage  to  this 
country  comparable  with  the  value  of  their  labor,  and  the 
further  fact  that  no  statutory  prohibition  of  "  assistance  " 
can  possibly  be  enforced. 

The  extraordinary  recent  advance  of  Canadian  popula 
tion  and  industries  carries  a  warning,  too,  that  our  na 
tional  apathy  in  regard  to  immigration  may  no  longer  be 
continued  with  prudence.  Canadian  government  and 
other  agencies  are  now  energetically  encouraging,  receiv 
ing  and  distributing  immigration,  as  before  noted,  and 
making  a  mock  of  our  dilatory  and  fumbling  procedure. 
It  surely  behooves  a  nation  that  has  grown  great  through 
immigration  not  to  reverse  its  traditional  policy  of  wel 
come,  and  resort  to  carping  complaints  and  foolish  bars  as 
a  confession  of  inability  to  grapple  with  any  local  per 
plexity  of  congestion. 

The  London  "  Saturday  Review  "  has  never  been  sus 
pected  of  cherishing  any  disposition  to  over-rate  America 
or  Americans,  but  a  recent  issue  of  this  critical  journal 
contains  a  recognition  which  every  patriotic  American 
may  well  prize,  and  a  forecast  which  only  our  incredible 
blundering  in  regard  to  immigration  can  falsify. 

188 


The  Call  for  Better  Distribution 

"THE  INDEPENDENCE  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

"  More  than  any  other  country  of  the  present  time, 
with  the  possible  exception  of  the  Russian  Empire,  the 
United  States  may  be  regarded  as  a  complete,  homogene 
ous,  economic  entity.  It  is  able  to  grow  all  the  corn  it 
requires;  it  can  raise  all  the  live  stock  that  it  needs;  its 
cotton  plantations  are  sufficient  to  supply  all  its  require 
ments;  its  mineral  resources,  both  of  base  and  precious 
metals,  are  extensive,  and  its  coal  mines  are  inexhaustible. 

"  Add  to  this  every  year  enormous  accessions  by  immi 
gration  of  carefully  selected,  adult,  able-bodied  and  skilled 
workmen  to  assist  in  the  development  of  these  very  varied 
resources.  The  development  of  that  country  is  probably 
due  in  large  degree  to  these  causes.  The  policy  of  pro 
tection,  which  it  has  extended  to  industries,  has  only 
hastened  the  natural  and  inevitable  growth  of  the  coun 
try.  We  may  be  sure  that,  in  the  future,  it  will  become 
more  and  more  independent  of  all  other  countries."  * 

ELIOT"  LORD. 

*  Quotation  of  "The  Saturday  Review"  in  "The  New  York  Sun," 
New  York,  October  19,  1904. 


189 


CHAPTER   X, 

PAUPERISM,    DISEASE   AND   CRIME 

A  cartoon  appearing  not  long  ago  in  one  of  our  Amer 
ican  city  newspapers  was  a  graphic  exhibit  of  a  popular 
fallacy.  It  represented  a  prodigious  steamship  stretching 
through  the  Mediterranean  and  across  the  Atlantic  from 
Italy  to  New  York.  At  th^  g^erri  of  this  vessel,  on  the 
Italian  coast,  a  mammoth  poorhouse  rose  in  view,  from 
which  a  procession  of  paupers  was  pouring  over  the  delks 
of  the  ship  in  unbroken  ranks  into  another  mammolJjLPOor- 
house  on  the  American  shore.  In  fervid  colors  also  our 
country  has  often  been  painted  as  an  abject  dumping 
ground  for  beggars  and  cripples  and  criminals  of  every 
stripe — the  spew  of  the  slums  of  the  Old  World,  voiding 
the  lame,  diseased  and  blind,  evicted  jail  birds  and  notor 
ious  rascals,  the  burdens  and  pests  of  society,  on  our  long- 
suffering  Republic.  One  sample  extract  from  a  New  York 
newspaper  condenses  this  tirade. 

"  The  floodgates  are  open.  The  bars  are  down.  The 
sally-ports  are  unguarded.  The  dam  is  washed  away.  The 
sewer  is  unchoked.  Europe  is  vomiting !  In  other  words, 
the  scum  of  immigration  is  viscerating  upon  our  shores. 

190 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

The  horde  of  $9.60  steerage  slime  is  being  siphoned  upon 
us  from  Continental  mud  tanks." 

In  view  of  the  grossness  of  this  misrepresentation,  no 
serious  rejoinder  would  be  called  for  were  it  not  for  the 
possible  impress  of  the  persistence  of  this  vituperation. 
Where  there  is  so  much  smoke,  it  may  be  inferred,  there 
must  be  some  flame.  The  simple  presentation  of  facts 
beyond  contravention  will  suffice  to  show  how  grotesquely 
the  truth  has  been  distorted. 

The  gigantic  poorhouse  or  system  of  poorhouses  of  the 
American  bugbear  does  not  exist  in  Italy.  There  is  no 
poor  law  in  the  kingdom,  and  no  one  has  a  legal  claim  for 
maintenance  at  the  expense  of  the  State  unless  he  be  in 
firm,  insane  or  an  infant.  There  are  many  charitable 
foundations  endowed  by  private  beneficence,  but  there 
are  comparatively  few  asylums  for  the  poor.  A  certain 
amount  of  begging  is  allowed,  and  there  are  still,  no  doubt, 
many  beggars  in  Italy,  especially  in  the  Southern  Prov 
inces — but  there  are  few  beggars  among  the  sturdy 
laborers  who  have  the  enterprise  and  the  will  to  seek  for 
work  in  a  country  so  distant  and  intolerant  of  drones. 
Our  restrictive  immigration  laws,  moreover,  specifically 
exclude  professional  beggars,  paupers  and  persons  likely 
to  become  a  public  charge,  as  well  as  all  idiots,  lunatics, 
epileptics,  persons  afflicted  with  a  loathsome  or  dangerous 
contagious  disease,  persons  convicted  of  a  felony  or  other 
crime  or  misdemeanor  involving  moral  turpitude,  prosti- 

191 


The  Italian  in  America 

tutes,  polygamists  and  anarchists.  The  official  papers, 
which  every  immigrant  to  this  country  from  Italy  must 
procure,  and  the  strict  examination  here,  practically  bar 
the  entry  of  any  considerable  number  of  the  classes  now 
justly  excluded  by  law.  ~No  current  misapprehension  nor 
calumny  can  rebut  this  conclusion. 

This  is  pithily  affirmed  in  the  official  report  of  the 
United  States  Commisioner  General  of  Immigration  for 
the  year  1895-96.  for  example :  "  It  is  gratifying  to  me 
to  be  again  able  to  report  to  you  that  I  know  of  no  immi 
grant  landed  in  this  country  within  the  last  year  who  is 
•now  a  burden  upon  any  public  or  private  institution. 

"  With  some  exceptions,  the  physical  characteristics 
of  the  year's  immigration  were  that  of  a  hardy,  sound, 
laboring  class,  accustomed  and  apparently  well  able  to 
earn  a  livelihood  wherever  capable  and  industrious  labor 
can  secure  employment." 

If  Italian  beggars  were  to  be  found  anywhere  in  this 
country  they  would  be  proportionately  most  numerous  in 
Greater  E"ew  York,  for  the  mass  of  immigrants  land  here, 
usually  with  only  a  few  dollars  in  their  pockets,  and  their 
poverty  has  greatly  retarded  their  spreading  throughout 
the  country.  Yet,  even  in  this  most  trying  situation,  the 
Italian  can  point  with  pride  to  the  records  of  his  compar 
ative  standing. 

On  common  beggary  in  New  York  City,  Jacob  Kiig 
writes  with  conceded  authority  in  "  How  the  Other  Half 

192 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

Lives  " :  "  It  is  curious  to  find  preconceived  notions  quite 
upset  in  a  review  of  the  nationalities  that  go  to  make  up 
this  squad  of  street  beggars.  The  Irish  lead  the  list  with 
fifteen  per  cent.,  and  the  native  American  is  only  a  little 
way  behind  with  twelve  per  cent.,  while  the  Italian  has 
less  than  two  per  cent.  Eight  per  cent,  were  Germans. 
The  relative  prevalence  of  the  races  in  our  population 
does  not  account  for  this  showing.  Various  causes  oper 
ate,  no  doubt,  to  produce  it.  Chief  among  them  is,  I 
think,  the  tenement  itself.  It  has  no  power  to  corrupt  the 
Italian,  who  comes  here  in  almost  every  instance  to  work. 
No  beggars  would  ever  emigrate  from  anywhere  unless 
forced  to  do  so." 

Another  authoritative  record  giving  an  exact  exhibit 
of  pauperism  in  New  York  City  and  its  distribution  by 
nationalities  is  presented  in  the  Thirty-fifth  Annual  Ee- 
port  of  the  State  Board  of  Charities  of  New  York,  con 
taining  the  proceedings  of  the  New  York  State  Confer 
ence  of  Charities  and  Correction  at  the  Second  Annual 
Session  held  in  New  York  City,  November  19,  20,  21 
and  22,  1901.  At  this  Conference  an  address  on  "  The 
Problems  of  the  Almshouse  "  was  given  by  Hon.  John  W. 
Keller,  President  of  the  Department  of  Public  Charities 
of  the  City  of  New  York.  He  defined  the  almshouse 
referred  to  in  his  discussion  as  follows :  "  In  the  Boroughs 
of  Manhattan  and  the  Bronx,  the  Almshouse  is  that  group 
of  buildings  on  Blackwell's  Island  where  the  helpless  and 

193 


S 


The  Italian  in  America 

friendless,  destitute  citizens  of  these  two  Boroughs  are 
cared  for  at  the  public  expense.  In  the  Borough  of 
Brooklyn  there  is  a  similar  institution  at  Flatbush,  and  in 
the  Borough  there  is  a  Poor  Farm."  In  the  course  of  his 
discussion  the  following  tables  were  presented : 

Table  "  A  "  (showing  the  nativity  of  persons  admitted 
to  the  AJiushouse  in  1900): 

Male.  Female.  Total. 

nited  States 355  199  554 

Ireland 808  809  1,617 

England  and  Wales Ill  87  198 

Scotland 25  14  39 

France 19  2  21 

Germany 290  84  374 

Norway,  Sweden  and  Denmark 22  6  28 

Italy  15  4  19 

Other  countries . .  50  36  86 


Total 1,695         1,241  2,936 

"  Out  of  a  total  of  2,936  only  554  were  born  in  the 
United  States;  2,382  were  foreign-born,  and  of  this  num 
ber  1,617  were  born  in  Ireland  alone." 

Table  "  B  "  (showing  nativity  of  those  admitted  to  the 
Incurable  Hospital  during  the  year  1900) : 

Male.  Female.  Total. 

United  States 7  4  11 

Ireland  5  6  11 

England  1  1  2 

Poland   1  1 

Germany    4  . .  4 

Italy 1  1 

Total 17  13  30 

194 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

Table  "  C  "  (showing  nativity  of  those  admitted  to  the 
Blind  Asylum  during  the  year  1900) : 

Male.  Female.  Total. 

United  States 45  4  49 

Ireland  36  3  39 

England  3  . .  3 

Germany   4  1  5 

Italy  1  ..  1 

Total 89  8  97 

Another  equally  conclusive  exhibit  is  furnished  from 
Boston,  which  comes  next  to  New  York  in  its  receipts  of 
immigration,  in  the  Twenty-third  Annual  Keport  of  the 
Associated  Charities  of  Boston,  November,  1902. 

"  The  variation  in  the  number  of  Italians  applying  for 
assistance  is  interesting.  Fifty-four  families  came  to  us 
in  1891,  and  only  69  in  the  last  year,  though  the  Italian 
population  of  this  city  has  in  the  meantime  increased  from 
4,718  to  13,738.  This  fact  seems  to  corroborate  the  re-  , 
port  of  Conference  6  (embracing  the  North-End  District 
or  Italian  quarter)  which  describes  the  Italian  immigrant 
as  usually  able  to  get  on  by  himself  except  in  case  of  sick 
ness,  when  temporary  help  is  needed." 

It  is  obvious  that  this  report  marks  not  only  a  low  rate 
of  pauperism  but  a  very  material  decrease  in  the  percent 
age  of  applicants  for  charity  in  the  face  of  the  often 
maligned  influx  during  the  closing  years  of  the  last  cen 
tury. 

195 


The  Italian  in  America 

The  report  of  District  6  Conference,  referred  to  in  the 
above  summary,  remarks,  ""  as  the  Italian  families  so 
largely  outnumber  the  others,  and  as  the  Italian  element 
is  now  predominant  in  the  district,  it  is  worth  while  to 
note  the  chief  causes  of  extreme  poverty. 

"  We  observe  that  intemperance  is  not  found  as  a  chief 
or  as  a  subsidiary  cause  in  any  of  this  year's  list  of  Italian 
families.  Sickness  was  the  leading  chief  cause  (10)  and 
also  the  leading  subsidiary  cause  (9)  ;  next  in  order  come 
the  following  chief  causes  :  lack  of  employment  due  to  no 
fault  of  the  employee  (4)  ;  physical  or  mental  defects  (2)  ; 
roving  disposition  (3);  dishonesty  (2);  disregard  of  family 
ties,  lack  of  training  for  work,  and  lack  of  thrift  (1  each). 

"  If  any  general  inference  is  fair  from  so  small  a  num 
ber  of  cases,  it  is  that  the  Italian  families  referred  to  us 
have  not  been  in  the  greatest  distress.  T^ie_maJ£rity  of 
the  Italians  are  apparently  fairly  thrifty  and  those  who 
have  trouble  are  often  helped  by  their  countrymen.  The 

called  uon  to  do  hasin  some 


fiaafiHjjfftt  a.  family  fit,  rm^e  upon  their  feet." 

The  assumption  that  illiteracy  is  a  prolific  source  of 
pauperism  is  not  sustained  by  the  examination  of  cases 
known  to  this  conference,  so  far,  at  least,  as  the  Italian 
immigrant  is  concerned.  "  In  the  matter  of  illiteracy/' 
the  Conference  of  District  6  states,  "  we  can  give  posi 
tive  information  about  only  45  of  the  68  families  (apply 
ing  for  aid)  —  mostly  Italians."  The  record  shows  32 

196 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

Italian  families,  with  64  parents  born  in  Italy.  "  Among 
heads  of  these  families,  we  find  32  who  can  read  and 
write;  2  who  can  read  and  not  write,  while  11  can  neither 
read  nor  write." 

As  to  the  burden  imposed  by  recent  arrivals  the  report 
of  Conference  4  is  noteworthy.  "  We  found  that  none  of 
the  new  arrivals  (needing  help)  were  recent  immigrants, 
and  that  almost  all  of  the  parents  were  born  in  the  United 
States  or  Great  Britain." 

These  particular  conclusions  are  roundly  sustained  and 
confirmed  by  the  determination  of  the  general  distribu 
tion  of  pauperism  by  nationalities  in  the  Report  of  the 
United  States  Industrial  Commission  on  Immigration 
transmitted  to  the  Fifty-seventh  Congress.  "  The  propor 
tion  of  the  different  nationalities  among  the  paupers  in 
our  almshouses  varies  very  greatly.  The  Irish  show  far 
and  away  the  largest  proportion,  no  less  than  7,550  per 
million  inhabitants,  as  compared  with  3,031  for  the  aver 
age  of  all  the  foreign  born.  The  French  come  next,  while 
the  proportion  of  paupers  among  the  Germans  is  some 
what  unexpectedly  high.  The  remarkably  low  degree  of 
pauperism  among  the  Italians  is  possibly  due  to  the  fact 
that  such  a  large  percentage  of  them  are  capable  of  active 
labor,  coming  to  this  country  especially  for  that  purpose." 

These  conclusions  are  further  substantiated  by  the  re 
port  of  the  Commissioner  General  of  Immigration  for  the 
fiscal  year  ending  June  30,  1904,  in  which  statistics  are 

197 


The  Italian  in  America 

presented  as  to  aliens  detained  in  the  charitable  institu 
tions  in  the  United  States.  It  appears  that  excluding  the 
insane,  there  were  at  the  time  of  this  examination  15,396 
aliens  in  the  charitable  institutions  of  the  United  States. 
In  the  division  by  races,  the  Irish  and  Germans  largely 
exceed  the  Italians,  there  being  4,599  Irish,  2,949  Ger 
mans,  1,230  Italians  and  1,309  English. 

Passing  to  'the  insane,  the  enumeration  shows  a  still 
greater  disparity,  namely,  5,943  Irish;  4,808  Germans; 
1,822  English;  1,985  Scandinavians,  and  718  Italians. 

As  shown  by  the  analysis  of  the  Bureau  of  Immigra 
tion,  the  proportion  of  Irish  in  the  charitable  institutions 
is  30  per  cent.,  of  Germans,  19  per  cent.,  of  English,  8  -f$ 
per  cent.,  while  the  Hebrews  and  Italians  are  both  8  per 
cent. 

DISEASE 

The  high  average  physical  vigor  of  the  immigrants 
from  Italy  is  demonstrated  by  their  endurance  of  the  most 
exhausting  labors  under  trying  climatic  conditions.  It  is 
questionable  whether  the  immigrants  from  any  other 
country  show  an  equal  adaptation  to  the  rigors  of  our 
Northern  winters  and  the  intense  sun  glare  on  our  South 
ern  plantations.  The  endurance  of  climatic  shifts  and 
extremes  without  distress  is  in  a  measure  accounted  for 
by  the  fact  that  so  many  have  been  inured  to  such  con 
ditions  in  their  own  country,  for  in  spite  of  their  nearer 

198 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

approach  to  the  tropics,  the  mountainous  districts  of  Italy 
are  often  colder  in  winter  than  any  considerable  district 
in  England.  Moreover,  there  is  less  provision,  ordinarily, 
in  Italy  for  the  artificial  heating  of  houses  in  winter  and 
Italians  live  without  a  shiver  in  cold  rooms  which  the 
average  Englishman  or  American  would  not  tolerate. 
~~A11  reliable  statistics  of  disease  and  mortality  obtain-^ 
able  here  show  that  the  Italians,  as  a  body,  are  so  healthy 
and  rugged  that  their  death  rate  is  comparatively  low 
ordinarily,  and  that  they  are  remarkably  free  from  dis 
ease  outside  of  the  congested  centres.  The  power  of 
resistance  to  disease  is  impaired  in  children  born  in  un 
sanitary  quarters,  but  this  is  rather  a  reproach  to  the  in 
adequacy  of  tenement  house  regulation  than  to  the  de 
generacy  of  the  stock.  The  exact  reports  obtainable  in 
Boston  may  fairly  be  taken  as  an  exhibit  of  the  average 
in  American  cities.  In  a  communication  to  Charities,  May 
7,  1904,  Kocco  Brindisi,  M.D.,  summarizes  the  compari 
son  of  mortality  in  this  city  for  a  typical  year.  "  In  1902 
there  were  in  Boston  641  deaths  among  the  Italians.  Of 
the  deceased,  175  were  born  in  Italy  and  466  were  born 
in  America  of  Italian  parents.  The  total  figures  repre 
sent  6  per  cent,  of  the  total  number  of  deaths  in  the  city 
of  Boston  and  11.43  per  thousand  of  the  population.  This 
rate  of  mortality  is  lower  than  that  of  any  other  nation 
ality  except  the  Russians." 

It  is  noted  by  the  same  authority  that  the  largest  per- 

199 


The  Italian  in  America 

centage  of  sickness  is  furnished  by  the  newcomers,  as 
might  naturally  be  expected,  and  by  the  women  and  chil 
dren.  The  newly  arrived  immigrants,  especially  when 
they  land  in  the  early  spring,  "  pay  their  tribute  to  acclim 
ation  by  contracting  rheumatic  and  respiratory  diseases, 
such  as  rheumatism,  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  pleuritis." 
Yet  the  vigor  of  these  immigrants  is  such,  as  he  observes, 
that  "  the  proportion  of  deaths  is  moderate,  owing  to  the 
strong  constitution,  the  youth  and  the  temperate  habits 
of  the  patients." 

"  The  Italian  women  here  are  forced  to  change  entirely 
their  mode  of  living.  From  the  active  natural  life  in  the 
open  air  they  are  plunged  at  once  into  a  life  of  relative 
inactivity  and  seclusion,  and  consequently  become  more 
or  less  liable  to  general  impairment  of  the  organic  func 
tions.  They  are  frequently  affected  with  dysmenorrhea, 
dyspepsia,  anemia,  chlorosis  and  kindred  diseases;  and 
their  impaired  physical  condition  has  an  injurious  effect  on 
the  children,  who  contribute  largely  to  the  mortality. 

"  Besides  the  maternal  influence,  improper  nursing  and 
insufficiency  of  fresh  air  are  responsible  for  the  great 
number  of  ailments  and  deaths  among  the  Italian  chil 
dren.  Rickets  and  tuberculosis  are  the  most  frequent  gen 
eral  diseases.  Bronchitis,  broncho-pneumonia  and  pneu 
monia  usually  affect  them  in  winter  and  intermediate 
seasons,  while  in  the  hot  weather  the  dreadful  host  of  the 
so-called  summer  complaints,  from  the  irritative  gastro- 

200 


Pauperism,,  Disease  and  Crime 

enteritis  to  the  deadly  cholera  infantum  storms  and  rav 
ages  the  Italo- American  breed." 

The  congested  conditions  of  living  in  the  plnW  AmA-r- 
ican  cities  are  unquestionably  responsible  for  the  deplor 
able  increase  in  sickness  and  mortality,  and  a  better  dis- 
tribution  is  certainly  the  only  remedy  that  will  cut  away 
the  rooj;  of  the  complaint.  The  alleged  low  standard  of 
living  and  improper  diet  of  the  Italians  have  also  been 
held  responsible  by  some  observers.  Mr.  Robert  A. 
Woods,  of  the  well  known  Boston  social  establishment, 
the  "  West  End  House/'  characterizes  their  diet  as  "  over- 
stimulating  and  innutritions."  My  own  wide  ranging  ob 
servations  do  not  support  this  conclusion.  The  Italian  in 
our  Northern  States  eats  much  more  meat  than  he  did  in 
Italy,  both  because  he  can  better  afford  to  pay  for  it  and 
likes  it,  and  because  he  apparently  feels  the  need  of  it  in 
sustaining  his  fatiguing  labors  through  our  long,  cold 
winter  seasons.  Other  immigrants  do  likewise  in  the  teeth 
of  the  protests  of  vegetarians,  and  the  Italian  does  not 
appear  to  suffer  from  the  change  more  than  any  other 
laboring  man.  Doubtless  the  reduction  in  the  amount  of 
meat  and  the  increase  of  vegetables  may  be  beneficial  in 
many  cases  of  Italians  suffering  from  stomach  troubles, 
as  Dr.  Brindisi  observes,  but  this  is  a  concern  which  ad 
vancing  experience  and  instruction  may  be  trusted  to  deal 
with.  There  is  no  substantial  reason  to  maintain  that  the 
ordinary  fare  of  the  Italian  workingman  here  is  any  more 

201 


The  Italian  in  America 

innutritions  than  that  of  any  other  laborer  in  a  like  situ 
ation,  and  there  is  substantial  evidence  that  it  is  better 
cooked  by  the  average  housewife  than  in  the  families  of 
workingmen  generally.  Moreover,  the  introduction  of  a 
variety  of  wholesome  greens,  celeries,  dandelions,  spinach, 
fennels,  has  been  very  greatly  advanced  throughout  this 
country  by  Italian-American  example  and  influence.  The 
increased  consumption  of  fruits  in  answer  to  the  Italian 
demand  and  by  the  multiplication  of  fruit  venders  has 
been  one  of  the  most  noteworthy  accompaniments  of  the 
Italian  immigration.  "  The  Italians  have  in  fact,"  ob 
serves  the  publication  of  the  "  South  End  House," 
"  Americans  in  Process,"  "  created  a  wholesome  appetite 
for  fruit  among  the  mass  of  the  people." 

It  is  doubtless  true,  as  Dr.  Antonio  Stella  remarks,  that 
the  prevalence  of  consumption  among  the  Italian  popula 
tion  of  our  chief  cities  is  distressful  and  even  alarming, 
and  that  statistics  arranged  in  accordance  with  the  infec 
tion  rate  rather  than  the  death  rate  would  demonstrate 
this  clearly,  and  I  have  not  even  the  faintest  desire  to 
minimize  the  evil  effects  of  congestion.  But  it  is  none  the 
less  true  that  the  mortality  rate  in  all  these  cities  has 
fallen  materially  since  the  great  influx  in  the  last  decade 
compelled  public  recognition  of  the  crying  need  of  better 
sanitation.  The  housing  and  general  living  conditions  are 
officially  certified  to  be  better  to-day  than  they  were  ten 
years  ago,  and  improvement  is  steadily  advancing.  The 

202 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

Italian  share  in  this  gain  is  unquestionable.  Dr.  S.  H. 
Durgin,  Chairman  of  the  Boston  Board  of  Health,  gives 
evidence  directly  in  point.  "  In  a  general  way,"  he  writes 
to  Dr.  Brindisi,  "  I  would  say  that  while  the  Italians  are 
prone  to  over-crowding,  they  are  in  other  respects  found 
to  be  in  a  fair  sanitary  condition,  and  decidedly  improv 
ing  from  year  to  year  in  our  city." 

Remedial  measures  to  check  the  start  and  spread  of  dis 
ease  in  congested  centres  are  still  to  be  devised  and  ex 
tended,  but  there  is  on  the  whole  no  warrant  for  any 
alarmist  view  of  Italian  degeneracy  in  America.  There 
is  certainly  no  inherent  lack  of  vitality  in  the  people.  On 
the  contrary,  as  Dr.  Stella  observes,  the  Italians,  except  for 
this  susceptibility  to  pulmonary  disease,  show  the  most 
wonderful  elements  of  resistance  and  recuperation,  as  may 
be  seen  in  the  favorable  manner  they  react  to  surgical 
operations,  extreme  temperatures  and.  all  sorts  of  trials. 

THE   IMMIGRANT   AND   CRIME 

In  view  of  the  services  of  the  immigrant  in  upbuilding 
this  country,  there  might  be  some  just  palliation  of  a 
percentage  of  law-breaking  in  excess  of  that  of  the  native 
born.  The  immigrant  has  not  been  reared  in  conformity 
with  our  laws  and  social  restrictions,  and  has  often  been 
negligently  housed  in  slums  intolerable  under  proper  san 
itary  and  building  regulations.  Yet  in  spite  of  our  slum 
traps  it  does  not  appear  that  the  record  of  the  foreign 

203 


The  Italian  in  America 

born  at  large  needs  any  special  consideration.     Hastings 
H.  Hart,  General  Secretary  of  the  National  Conference 
of  Charities  and  Correction,  contributed  a  notable  exam 
ination  of  the  comparative  criminality  of  our  foreign  and 
native  born  population,  in  a  communication  to  the  "  Amer 
ican  Journal  of  Sociology  "  for  November,  1896. 
*       A  common  error  arises,  as  he  notes,  "  from  comparing 
/the  criminal  population,   foreign   and  native,   with  the 
^w"hole  of  the  general  population,  foreign  and  native.    The 
young  children  of  the  community  furnish  practically  no 
prisoners  and  nearly  all  of  these  children  are  native  born, 
whether  the  parents  are  native  born  or  not," 

"  Of  the  prisoners  of  the  United  States,  98.5  per  cent. 
are  above  the  age  of  sixteen  years;  95  per  cent,  are  above 
the  age  of  eighteen  years ;  and  84  per  cent,  are  above  the 
age  of  twenty-one  years.  The  native  born  population  of 
the  United  States  in  1890  numbered  53,390,600;  the 
native  born  prisoners,  65,977;  ratio  1,235  in  a  million. 
The  foreign  born  population  numbered  9,231,381;  the 
foreign  born  prisoners,  16,352;  ratio,  1,744  in  a  million; 
an  apparent  excess  of  foreigners  over  natives  of  41  per 
cent.  But  the  number  of  native  born  males  of  voting  age 
was  12,591,852 ;  native  born  male  prisoners,  61,637;  ratio, 
4,895  in  a  million.  The  number  of  foreign  born  males  of 
voting  age  was  4,348,459 ;  foreign  born  male  prisoners, 
14,287;  ratio,  3,285;  showing  an  equal  excess  of  natives 
over  foreigners  of  50  per  cent." 

204 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

The  basis  of  Mr.  Hart's  reckoning  of  parentage  is  crit 
icized  in  the  statistical  report  of  the  United  States  Indus 
trial  Commission  on  Immigration  transmitted  to  Congress 
on  December  5,  1901,  but  his  general  conclusion  is 
affirmed  as  follows,  viz. :  "  From  this  table  it  will  be  seen 
that  taking  the  United  States  as  a  whole,  the  whites  of 
foreign  birth  are  a  trifle  less  criminal  than  the  total  num 
ber^  of  whites  of  native  birth." 

In  the  report  of  this  Commission  there  is  further  noted 
the  nationality  which  has  contributed  far  more  largely 
than  any  other  to  raise  the  average  of  the  criminality  and 
pauperism  of  the  foreign  born.  "  Taking  the  inmates  of 
all  penal  and  charitable  institutions,  we  find  that  the  high 
est  ratio  is  shown  by  the  Irish,  whose  proportion  is  more 
than  double  the  average  for  the  foreign  born,  amounting 
to  no  less  than  16,624  to  the  million/' 

The  comparative  percentage  of  the  criminality  of  Ital 
ians  in  this  country  is  set  high  in  this  table,  coming 
between  the  French  and  the  Swiss,  but  the  substantial  ac 
curacy  of  this  rating  is  vitiated  by  the  fact  that  the  pro 
portion  of  males  and  the  comparative  ages  of  the  immi 
grants  of  the  several  nationalities  do  not  enter  into  the 
reckoning.  These  elements  are  essential  to  any  just  and 
accurate  determination  of  comparative  criminality.  It 
is  only  fair,  too,  to  take  into  consideration  the  distribu 
tion  of  the  nationalities.  The  rate  of  criminality  is  higher 
in  city  slums  than  amid  the  better  surroundings  of  the 

205 


The  Italian  in  America 

country  places  at  large.  This  abnormal  criminality  is  un 
fairly  charged  against  the  people  of  the  slum  quarters, 
and  there  has  been  a  strenuous  harping  on  the  disastrous 
effect  of  immigration  in  filling  the  slums  of  our  cities  and 
in  the  prolific  breeding  of  crime  and  disease.  Fortunately 
for  the  credit  of  the  immigrants,  there  has  been  of  late 
years  a  dawning  perception  that  it  is  the  tenement,  not 
the  tenant,  that  makes  the  slum,  and  that  the  rational 
remedy  for  congestion  does  not  lie  in  the  exclusion  of  the 
flow  of  productive  labor  but  in  its  effective  regulation  and 
distribution.  Our  present  slums  are  the  natural  out 
growth  of  the  reckless  laxity  of  our  building  laws 
and  sanitary  regulations.  They  are  plainly  chargeable 
to  our  civic  blindness  and  the  toleration  of  greed. 
It  is  me  native-born  rookery,  not  the  foreign-born  in 
flux,  that  must  bear  the  burden  of  reproach  for  the 
_  I..  - 

^iliirn 

This  has  been  conclusively  demonstrated  in  the  partial 
transformation  already  effected  by  the  pressure  of  neces 
sity  and  the  sense  of  responsibility. 

In  the  pithy  conclusion  of  Jacob  Eiis,  c;  wherever  the 
Gospel  and  the  sunlight  go  h'and  in  hand  in  the  battle 
with  the  slums,  there  it  is  already  won — there  is  an  end 
of  it  at  once."  Sometimes  the  slum  has  been  conquered 
by  cutting  out  sections  bodily,  as  was  done  in  the  annihila 
tion  of  the  infamous  Five  Points,  in  the  opening  of  Para 
dise  Park,  a  playground  for  the  children.  "  Mulberry 

206 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

Bend/'  as  Mr.  Kiis  observes,  "  was  the  worst  pigsty  of 
all.  I  do  not  believe  that  there  was  a  week  in  all  the 
twenty  years  I  had  to  do  with  the  den  as  a  police  reporter, 
in  which  I  was  not  called  to  record  there  a  stabbing  or 
shooting  affair,  some  act  of  violence.  It  is  now  five  years 
since  the  Bend  became  a  Park,  and  the  police  reporter  has 
not  had  business  there  once  during  that  time;  not  once 
has  a  shot  been  fired  or  a  knife  been  drawn.  That  is  what 
it  means  to  let  the  sunlight  in  and  give  the  boys  their 
rights  in  a  slum  like  that."  Or  the  slum  has  been  over 
come  no  less  effectively  by  the  reconstruction  of  tene 
ments  as  was  done  by  such  builders  as  Miss  Ellen  Collins, 
who,  in  the  words  of  Jacob  Riis,  "  planted  homes  in  the 
true  sense  of  the  word,  in  the  very  slum  of  slums,  down 
in  Water  Street,  ....  right  in  the  very  devil's  pre 
serves,  and  beat  him  out  of  sight The  Water 

Street  houses  had  been  a  veritable  hell  before  she  took 
hold  there.  The  dark  halls  were  a  favorite  hiding  place 

for  criminals  when  chased  by  the  police The 

buildings  were  unspeakably  filthy,  the  saloon  on  the 
ground  floor  had  finally  been  closed,  after  one  of  the 
bloody  fights  that  were  the  rule  of  the  neighborhood.  Yet 
practically  the  same  tenants  are  there  to-day  and  have 
been  there  these  twenty  years.  It  was  the  landlord  who 
has  changed  and  furnished  opportunities  for  the  tenants 
to  come  up  to.  Miss  Collins  brought  back  the  home,  and 
her  houses  became  good  and  decent;  the  whole  neighbor- 

207 


The  Italian  in  America 

hood  took  a  turn  for  the  better,  tried  to  come  up  to  the 
ideal  that  she  set  before  it.77 

Even  less  radical  changes  are  very  notably  effective  in 
the  purification  of  the  slum.  "  Even  as  I  am  writing/' 
says  Mr.  Riis,  "  a  transformation  is  being  worked  in  some 
of  the  filthiest  streets  in  the  East  Side  by  a  combination 
of  new  asphalt  pavements  with  a  greatly  improved  street- 
cleaning  service  that  promises  great  things.  Some  of  the 
worst  streets  have,  within  a  few  weeks,  become  as  clean 
as  I  have  not  seem  them  in  twenty  years  and  as  they  prob 
ably  never  were  since  they  were  made.  The  unwonted 
brightness  of  the  surroundings  is  already  visibly  reflected 
in  the  person  and  dress  of  the  tenants,  notably  the  chil 
dren.  They  take  to  it  gladly,  giving  the  lie  to  the  old 
assertion  that  they  are  pigs  and  would  rather  live  like 
pigs." 

Reconstruction  is  not  a  gift  enterprise  or  charitable 
donation.  Street  widenings  and  the  opening  of  squares 
and  little  parks  are  the  changing  of  antiquated  inconven 
ient  and  unhealthy  conditions  for  the  essential  require 
ments  of  a  modern  city.  Reconstruction  of  dwellings  to 
meet  proper  requirements  is  not  any  half  way  approach 
to  the  erection  of  almshouses.  It  has  been  demonstrated 
over  and  over  again  that  the  so-called  model  tenements 
will  unfailingly  pay  even  higher  average  returns  than  the 
business  buildings  erected  under  modern  regulations  in 
the  best  city  locations.  Even  where  there  is  an  apparent 

208 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

strain  of  philanthropy  or  extraordinary  accommodation 
for  the  rental  charges,  as  in  the  erection  of  the  Riverside 
Tenements  in  Brooklyn,  the  return  is  certified  to  be  never 
less  than  six  and  even  seven  per  cent,  on  the  investment. 
The  landlord  of  these  tenements,  as  Mr.  Riis  writes,  "  says 
with  scorn  that  '  talk  about  the  tenants  coming  up  to  their 
opportunities  '  was  the  veriest  humbug.  They  are  there 
now,  a  long  way  ahead  of  the  landlord."  Here  the  central 
yard  is  a  garden  with  flowers  and  a  band-stand  where  a 
band  plays  sometimes  at  the  landlord's  expense;  so,  con 
trary  to  the  common  experience,  "  it  is  much  better  to  live 
in  the  rear  of  the  yard  than  in  front." 

Even  under  present  conditions,  the  true  effect  of  im 
migration  on  the  slum  is  expertly  marked  by  Jacob  Riis : 
"  It  is  nevertheless  true  that  while  immigration  peoples 
our  slums,  it  also  keeps  them  from  stagnation.  The  work 
ing  of  the  strong  instinct  to  better  themselves  that 
brought  the  crowds  here  forces  layer  after  layer  of  this 
population  up  to  make  room  for  the  new  crowds  coming 
in  at  the  bottom,  and  thus  a  circulation  is  kept  up  that 
does  more  than  any  sanitary  law  to  render  the  slums 
harmless.  Even  the  useless  sediment  is  kept  from  rotting 
by  being  constantly  stirred." 

A  careful  examination  of  police  reports,  secured  from 
every  city  in  this  country,  where  nationalities  are  dis 
tinguished  in  the  records  of  arrests,  does  not  justify  the 
assumption  that  the  criminal  tendencies  of  the  Italians 


\ 


The  Italian  in  America 


exceed  the  average  of  the  foreign  born  or  of  the  native 
population.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  no  comparison 
is  valid  which  does  not  take  into  account  the  relative  pro 
portion  of  males  and  females  and  the  factor  of  age.  Yet 
in  Boston,  Providence  and  other  cities,  attracting  the 
greater  part  of  the  Italian  immigration  to  New  England, 
the  percentage  of  arrests  of  Italians  is  less  than  their  per 
centage  of  the  foreign  born  total.  Two  examples  of  this 
record  may  suffice : 

Boston.  Providence. 

Total  foreign  born,  Census  1900 197,129  55,855 

Total  born  in  Italy,  Census  1900 13,738  6,252 

Italian  percentage  of  total  foreign  born ...  7.0  11.2 

Total  arrests,  foreign  born 19,952  3,902 

Total  arrests,  Italian  nativity 1,219  (1903)      422  (1903) 

Percentage  of  arrests 6.1  10.8 

It  will  be  noted  that  in  both  cases  cited,  the  record  of 
arrests  is  for  1903,  three  years  later  than  the  census 
count  of  population.  Within  these  three  years  the  Ital 
ian  influx  has  raised  materially  the  Italian  percentage  of 
the  total  foreign  born;  hence  the  strictly  correct  compari 
son  would  be  more  notably  to  the  advantage  of  the  Ital 
ians.  In  Paterson  and  other  cities  of  New  Jersey  contain 
ing  a  considerable  Italian  population,  the  comparison  of 
percentage  is  still  more  favorable  to  the  Italian  propor 
tion  of  the  foreign  born.  The  comparison  in  New  York 
City  is  slightly  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Italians. 

210 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

New  York. 

Total  foreign  born,  Census  1900 1,270,080 

Total  born  in  Italy,  Census  1900 145,433 

Italian  percentage  of  total  foreign  born 11.5 

Total  arrests,  foreign  born 59,077 

Total  arrests,  Italian  nativity 7,307  (1900) 

Percentage  of  arrests 12.3 


But  the  annual  influx  is  here  so  great  that  the  census 
count  is  considerably  under  the  correct  enumeration  for 
the  full  year  1900,  the  basis  of  the  reckoning  of  percent 
age.  Moreover,  the  record  of  arrests  is  scarcely  even  an 
approximate  measure  of  criminality.  There  is  at  the  out 
set  a  deduction  for  discharges  and  acquittals  for  which 
there  are  no  special  records  showing  distinction  of  nation 
alities.  Then  the  arrests  are  largely  for  breaches  of  city 
ordinances  such  as  peddling  without  a  license,  which  are 
not  criminal  offences.  The  more  recent  immigrants  like 
the  Italians  are  the  most  likely  to  break  ordinances  ignor- 
antly  and  they  are  also  most  liable  to  suffer  from  hazing 

---—  "        ' *<5> 

A  more  notable  than  creditable  attempt  has  been  made 

to  figure  out  an  excess  of  Italian  criminality  above  the 
iverage  by  the  singular  device  of  dropping  from 
recorcTall  criiiltiH1  ttflalhg  from  drunkenness.  Tnis  alleged 
prop  of  immigration  restriction  was  readily  shaken  in  a 
hearing  given  by  the  Senate  Committee  on  Immigration 
on  December  9,  1902.  "  The  Italian  people/7  as  I  then 
observed  in  briefly  addressing  the  committee,  "  as  a  whole 

211 


The  Italian  in  America 

are  a  frugal  and  industrious  people.  In  our  statistics  we 
sometimes  make  discriminations  against  them  that  are 
not  correct.  We  had  an  illustration  of  this  in  Massa 
chusetts.  A  report  was  prepared  by  the  Immigration  Ee- 
striction  League  which  was  based  upon  the  criminal  record 
of  the  Italians  in  Massachusetts,  leaving  out  all  crimes 
which  had  been  produced  through  intoxication.  That  is 
the  way  that  ingenious  plan  of  statistics  was  drawn.  So 
they  tried  to  make  out  a  bad  case  against  the  Italians." 

"  Now  Massachusetts  is  the  one  State  in  the  Union  that 
has  made  the  most  thorough  examination  of  the  whole 
question  of  the  relation  of  intemperance  to  crime,  and 
the  report  on  that  subject  in  1895  by  the  Bureau  of  Labor 
Statistics  there  shows  that  about  87  per  cent,  of  all  the 
crime  in  Massachusetts  grew  out  of  intemperance  in  some 
form.  When  you  take  then  the  Italian  population  of 
Boston  and  of  Massachusetts,  and  ask  how  many  of  these 
people  were  imprisoned  or  arrested  or  committed  crime 
because  of  intemperance,  you  find  that  they  rise  away 
above  all  the  Northern  races.  The  Italian  jggople  are  a 
temperate  people,  and  while^  in  Massachusetts,  three  in  a 
hundred  of  the  Northern  j*aces?  including  the  Scotch,  the 
Irish,  the  English  and  the  Germans  were  arrested  for  in- 
tfvpnpApfvnpp  r^nly  fhreo  in  n  thousand  of  the  Italians  were 
a^reeted.  What  a  remarkable  bearing  that  has  upon  de 
sirability  and  availability!  " 

This  evidence  is  further  specifically  attested  in  the  re- 

212 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

port  of  the  United  States  Industrial  Commission  on  Im 
migration  covering  the  tables  compiled  by  the  Prison 
Commissioners  of  Massachusetts.  This  report  states :  "  It 
appears  from  the  table  that  prisoners  committed  to  all 
institutions  in  proportion  to  a  thousand  population  of  the 
same  nativity  indicates  that  those  born  in  Massachusetts 
numbered  7.3  per  thousand,  but  that,  omitting  those  com 
mitted  for  intoxication  the  number  is  2.6  per  thousand. 
Below  this  proportion  stand  immigrants  from  Portugal, 
Austria,  Germany,  Kussia  and  Finland.  The  leading  na 
tionality  above  this  average  is  that  of  the  Irish,  whose 
commitments  per  thousand  were  27.1,  but  omitting  in 
toxication  was  6.  Next  in  order  of  commitments  are 
Welsh,  English,  Scotch  and  Norwegians,  all  of  which 
show  a  large  predominance  of  intoxication.  The  Italians 
are  a  marked  exception,  the  commitments  numbering  12.0 
for  all  causes,  and  10  for  causes  except  intoxication."  In 
view  of  the  very  high  proportion  of  males  above  the  age 
of  18  in  the  Italian  immigration,  this  record  does  not  cer 
tainly  appear  to  the  disadvantage  of  the  Italians.  Their 
comparative  temperance  is  further  attested  beyond  ques 
tion  by  the  investigation  made  by  the  Committee  of  Fifty 
of  nearly  thirty  thousand  cases  in  the  records  of  organized 
charity.  Here  intemperance  was  shown  to  be  the  prin 
cipal  cause  of  distress  in  twenty  per  cent,  of  the  German 
cases,  twenty-four  per  cent,  of  the  American  cases,  twenty- 
five  per  cent,  of  the  English  cases  and  thirty-eight  per 

213 


The  Italian  in  America 

cent,  of  the  Irish  cases ;  but  in  only  three  and  one-half  per 
cent,  of  the  Italian  cases. 

An  interesting  typical  exhibit  of  this  distinguishing  in 
temperance  is  contributed  by  Dr.  Rocco  Brindisi  to 
"  Charities."  "  Of  the  eighty-eight  who  died  in  Boston 
of  alcoholism  in  the  year  1902,  none  were  Italian.  Dur 
ing  March  (1904)  59  Italians  were  arrested  by  the  police 
of  Division  I,  which  is  in  the  heart  of  the  Italian  quarter 
(in  Boston),  and  of  these  only  9  were  for  drunkenness. 
It  is  worthy  of  note  that  5  were  arrested  on  the  eighteenth, 
that  is,  between  St.  Patrick's  Day  and  St.  Joseph's,  which 
shows  that  they  are  not  habitual  drunkards,  but  go  on  a 
spree  on  holidays.  Lieutenant  Rosallo,  to  whom  I  am  in 
debted  for  the  above  information,  states  that  during  his 
long  service  of  seventeen  years  at  the  station,  not  one 
Italian  woman  was  arrested  for  drunkenness." 

The  records  in  the  smaller  cities  and  country  districts 
are  less  exact,  but  my  personal  inquiries  and  correspond 
ence  with  observers  throughout  the  country,  assure  the 
conclusion  that  crime  among  the  Italians  is  comparatively 
rare  in  such  locations.  Schenectady  may  be  taken  as  typ 
ical  of  the  progressive  manufacturing  cities  attracting 
Italian  settlement  in  the  East.  Here,  Mayor  Eisen- 
menger,  who  served  for  many  years  as  Justice  of  the 
Police  Court,  attests  positively  the  general  good  conduct 
and  character  of  the  Italian  workers  in  the  city.  The 
year  1893  was  one  of  peculiar  hardship,  and  he  thought  it 

214 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

really  of  special  note  that  no  Italian  applied  for  public 
charity  during  that  year,  and  no  one  was  brought  before 
his  court  for  any  serious  offence.  The  canvass  made  by 
the  "  Manufacturers'  Record  "  of  the  condition  and  prog 
ress  of  Italian  plantation  workers  in  the  South  obtained  re 
ports  of  a  rarity  of  crime  and  even  of  misdemeanors  that 
was  very  highly  creditable  to  these  immigrants. 

There  is  a  certain  lack  of  reliable  statistics  showing 
comparative  criminality,  taking  into  consideration  the 
essential  elements  of  sex  and  age,  but  my  personal  investi 
gation  in  all  American  cities  containing  a  considerable 
Italian  population  leads  to  the  conclusion  that  the  pro 
portion  of  crimes  against  the  person  is  somewhat  greater 
among  the  Italian  population  here  than  among  natives, 
but  the  proportion  of  all  crimes  to  the  population  is  less. 
Furthermore,  the  testimony  is  general  that  affrays  in 
which  knives  and  pistols  are  used  by  Italians  are  in  the 
great  majority  of  instances  confined  to  their  own  nation 
ality.  These  grow  largely  out  of  jealous  defence  of  wives, 
sisters,  daughters  or  sweethearts,  or  resentment  of  rivalry. 
Often  the  inciting  cause  is  covered  by  trivial  pretences 
and  a  quarrel  flames  up  for  no  reason  apparent  to  ordinary 
observers. 

There  are,  no  doubt,  too,  murders  of  sheer  brutality  or 
those  committed  in  the  course  of  robbery.  There  are 
known  ^instances  also  of  blackmail  and  dastardly  assassin 
ation  by  individuals  or  bands  of  ruffians.  But  such  out- 

215 


The  Italian  in  America 

rages  are  utterly  at  variance  with  the  known  disposition  of 
the  great  mass  of  the  Italians  in  this  country.  There  are 
vile  men  in  every  nationality,  and  it  does  not  appear  by 
any  substantial  evidence  that  the  Italian  is  peculiarly 
burdened,  though  it  has  been  unwarrantably  reproached 
through  ignorance  or  prejudice.  This  discrimination  has 
doubtless  arisen  largely  from  the  fact  that  crimes  com 
mitted  by  the  Italians  are  of  a  more  sensational  character 
than  the  average  or  are  more  readily  inflated  into  popular 
sensations.  Hetoce  they  are  expanded  in  print  under 
headlines  that  catch  the  eye  and  make  an  impress  out  of 
proportion  to  their  comparative  number. 

Jacob  Eiis,  one  of  the  most  keen  and  impartial  of  ob 
servers,  sums  up  pithily  his  view  of  the  offences  of  the 
Italian  in  America: 

"  With  all  his  conspicuous  faults,  the  swarthy  Italian 
immigrant  has  big  redeeming  traits.  He  is  as  honest  as 
he  is  hot-headed.  There  are  no  Italian  burglars  in  the 
Rogues'  Gallery;  the  '  ex-brigand '  toils  peacefully  with 
pick-axe  and  shovel  on  American  ground.  His  boy  occa 
sionally  shows,  as  a  pickpocket,  the  results  of  his  train 
ing  with  the  toughs  of  the  Sixth  Ward  slums.  The  only 
criminal  business  to  which  the  father  occasionally  lends 
his  hand,  outside  of  murder,  is  a  bunco  game,  of  which  his 
confiding  countrymen,  returning  with  their  hoard  to  their 
native  land,  are  the  victims.  The  women  are  faithful 
wives  and  devoted  mothers.  Their  vivid  and  picturesque 

216 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

costumes  lend  a  tinge  of  color  to  the  otherwise  dull  mon 
otony  of  the  slums  they  inhabit.  The  Italian  is  gay,  light- 
hearted,  and,  if  his  fur  is  not  stroked  the  wrong  way,  in 
offensive  as  a  child.  His  worst  offence  is  that  he  keeps 
the  stale  beer  dives." 

In  the  reports  of  the  Industrial  Commission  on  Im 
migration  (Volume  15,  page  480),  1901,  it  is  observed 
that  the  crime  rate  of  Italians  chiefly  on  the  score  of 
crimes  of  violence  is  high  in  their  own  country.  It  is 
remarked,  however,  "  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  con 
ditions  there  are  changing  for  the  better,  which  will  cause 
a  corresponding  change  in  the  character  of  future  immi 
gration.  It  has  been  claimed,  and  statistics  are  given  to 
substantiate  the  claim,  that  the  part  of  the  crime  rate  due 
to  homicide  is  diminishing  regularly  and  continuously  in 
Italy,  owing  to  the  general  extension  of  the  influences  of 
civilization,  such  as  education,  development  of  commerce, 
transportation,  communication  by  newspapers,  mail  and 
telegraph.  It  is  said,  too,  that  emigration  is  helping  in 
this  process  by,  first,  the  greater  prosperity  brought  to  the 
country  through  returning  emigrants,  and,  more  power 
fully  by  the  more  enlightened  ideas  brought  back  by 
them. 

"  As  the  Italian  population  increases  here,  moreover,  the 
percentage  of  females  and  children  increases,  and  this 
also  will  reduce  their  crime  rate." 

It  has  been  estimated  by  an  observant  member  of  the 

217 


The  Italian  in  America 

New  York  Prison  Association  that  seventy-five  per  cent, 
of  all  crimes  committed  by  Italians  in  this  country  are 
punished  because  of  their  open  character,  while  seventy- 
five  per  cent,  of  all  crimes  in  the  United  States  go  unpun 
ished.  If  this  calculation  is  reasonably  correct,  it  would 
appear  that  the  Italian  is  already  receiving  his  full  share 
of  denunciation,  restraint  and  punishment  for  his  mis 
deeds  in  America. 

There  is  no  thought,  of  course,  in  this  observation  of 
suggesting  any  stretch  of  tolerance  for  the  crimes  com 
mitted  by  any  Italians  in  this  country.  In  fact  the  great 
mass  of  their  own  countrymen  would  be  instantly  resent 
ful  of  any  such  plea  or  procedure.  Their  leading  mem 
bers  in  meetings  of  the  Italian  Chambers  of  Commerce 
and  other  representative  associations  have  repeatedly  ap 
pealed  for  the  most  active  and  vigorous  enforcement  of 
the  laws  to  detect  and  punish  blackmailers  and  other  crim 
inals  who  harass  their  peaceable  and  hard-working  com 
munities. 

The  apparent  incapacity  or  ineffectiveness  of  the  reg 
ular  police  force  in  districts  where  blackmailing  has  been 
most  frequent  and  oppressive,  is  a  deficiency  that  calls 
sharply  for  reform.  In  the  weariness  of  waiting  for 
proper  official  protection,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
Italians  in  some  of  our  anthracite  coal  mining  districts, 
especially,  have  been  driven  in  self-defence  to  organize 
for  their  needed  protection  such  vigilance  committees  as 

218 


Pauperism,  Disease  and  Crime 

the  St.  Joseph  Protective  Association  in  Carbondale,  Pa., 
and  the  like  in  Old  Forge,  Edgerton  and  smaller  hamlets. 
The  practical  service  of  these  self-defending  associations 
is  already  obvious  in  the  repression  of  blackmailing,  but 
the  terrorism  in  these  districts  still  calls  for  redoubled 
energy  on  the  part  of  the  police  and  the  adoption  of  every 
feasible  restraint. 

An  admirable  object  lesson  to  every  community  plagued 
by  blackmailers  is  offered  in  the  method  devised  last  year 
by  Commissioner  McAdoo  in  New  York  City  for  the  de 
tection  and  arrest  of  blackmailers  and  criminals  of  every 
stripe  in  the  Italian  quarters  of  Greater  New  York.  This 
was  the  organization  of  a  special  "  Italian  Department " 
of  his  detective  force  headed  by  one  of  the  most  com 
petent  members  of  his  staff,  Detective  Sergeant  Petro- 
sini.  This  force  of  twenty-nine  members  is  made  up  of 
alert,  keen  and  trustworthy  men  of  Italian  descent,  thor 
oughly  familiar  with  the  Italian  quarters  and  quick  to 
scent  out  and  pounce  upon  the  rascals  that  have  been  in 
festing  these  quarters  and  furnishing  the  newspapers  with 
visions  of  an  imported  Mafia. 

The  Commissioner  states  his  disbelief  in  the  transplant 
ing  of  any  such  bogy  organization,  but  he  has  rightly 
determined  to  stamp  out  the  blackmailing  pest  in  every 
guise  in  which  it  appears.  He  reports  a  gratifying  reduc 
tion  in  this  and  other  crimes  in  the  Italian  quarters 
through  the  persistent  and  expert  services  of  this  new 

219 


The  Italian  in  'America 

department.  It  has  already  made  many  arrests,  secured 
certain  convictions,  and  driven  numbers  of  criminals  back 
to  their  native  land  where  they  will  not  escape  surveillance 
and  punishment,  for  their  description  and  records  are 
promptly  furnished  to  the  Italian  police  departments. 

No  measure  of  the  Commissioner's  administration  has 
been  better  conceived  and  more  signally  successful.  For 
the  benefit  of  the  Italians  in  New  York  and  the  country 
at  large,  it  is  only  to  be  regretted  that  this  device  was 
not  applied  years  ago,  for  it  is  clearly  the  one  most  need 
ful  and  effective.  Under  the  unbending  requirements  of 
the  Civil  Service  examinations,  no  special  openings  can 
be  made  for  Italians  to  enter  the  regular  police  force  of 
the  city,  though  more  could,  no  doubt,  be  employed  to  ad 
vantage  in  the  Italian  quarters,  but  Commissioner 
McAdoo  reports  an  evident  ambition  of  so  many  young 
men  of  Italian  descent  to  enter  the  service  that  the  lack 
of  policemen  thoroughly  familiar  witli  these  quarters  will 
be  supplied  within  a  few  years.  The  Italians  in  the  city 
as  elsewhere,  are  quick  to  respond  to  impartial  and  sym 
pathetic  treatment,  and  the  conviction  is  now  widespread 
that  the  head  of  the  Police  Department  will  treat  one  and 
all  with  scrupulous  fairness  of  intention.  There  will  be 
no  occasion  to  worry  over  any  peculiar  exhibit  of  crime 
among  the  Italians  in  America  if  the  common-sense  re 
straint  applied  by  Commissioner  McAdoo  is  adopted  or 
adapted  wherever  needed  by  an  official  in  whom  the  mass 
of  Italians  have  confidence.  SAMUEL  J.  BARKOWS. 


CHAPTER  XI 

PROGRESSIVE    EDUCATION    AND   ASSIMILATION 

It  is  a  plainly  untenable  ground  of  objection  to  the  entry 
of  the  Italian  immigrant  into  this  country  that  he  has  been 
reared  under  social  and  political  institutions  that  clash  ^ 
with  our  republican  principles.     May  not  the  like  be  urged 
against  the  admission  of  immigrants  from  almost  every     I 
country  in  Europe?    Why  should  this  fact  be  more  a     \ 
disqualification  to  the  Italian  than  to  the  German  or 
Englishman  or  Irishman?    Is  he  more  backward  than 
the  immigrant  of  any  other  nationality  in  hearty  appre 
ciation  of  our  free  Institutions  and  in  the  loyalty  of  his 
citizenship  ?     On  the  contrary,  it  might  rather  be  urged 
in  his  favor  that  no  immigrant  of  any  country  excels  him 
in  the  fervor  of  his  appreciation  of  the  free  thought,  free 
press,  free  school  and  free  government  of  America. 

The  hatred  of  slavery  has  been  an  ever-burning  passion 
in  his  bosom,  even  when  inured  to  subjection  by  centuries 
of  oppression.  In  the  years  before  our  war  for  the  Union, 
Irving,  Cooper  and  Longfellow  had  many  admiring  read 
ers  in  Italy,  but  no  other  American  book  of  that  period 
or  since  has  ever  moved  Italy  like  "  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin." 

221 


The  Italian  in  America 

Throughout  the  darkest  days  of  our  Civil  War  the  leading 
newspapers  of  North  Italy,  where  alone  the  expression  of 
opinion  was  free,  were  steadfast  friends  of  the  American 
North  as  the  upholder  of  Liberty  and  Union,  one  and 
inseparable.  For  a  like  ideal,  not  many  years  after,  dis 
severed  and  discordant  Italy  suppressed  her  feuds  and 
jealousies,  and  the  patriotic  rising  of  her  people  broke 
every  bond  that  fettered  her  aspiration. 

Is  the  marking  of  class  divisions  or  distinctions  of  rank 
deeper  in  Italy  than  elsewhere  in  Europe,  making  an  im 
press  which  even  free  America  can  hardly  efface?  Let 
William  Dean  Howells,  surely  a  competent  and  candid 
observer,  respond  to  this  point.  "I  do  not  think,"  he 
writes  in  "  Venetian  Life,"  "  there  is  ever  shown  among 
Italians  either  the  aggressive  pride  or  the  abject  mean 
ness  which  marks  the  intercourse  of  peoples  and  nobles 
elsewhere  in  Europe ;  and  I  have  not  seen  the  distinction 
of  rich  and  poor  made  so  brutally  in  Italy  as  sometimes 
in  our  own  soi-disant  democratic  society  at  home.  There 
is,  indeed,  that  equality  in  Italian  fibre  which  I  believe 
fits  the  nation  for  democratic  institutions  better  than  any 
other,  and  which  is  perhaps  partly  the  result  of  their 
ancient  civilization." 

The  same  observer  in  his  "Italian  Journeys"  notes  a 
curious  resemblance  which  may  be  reassuring  to  those 
who  are  prone  to  conjure  up  the  bugbear  of  Italian  inca 
pacity  for  progressive  assimilation  with  Americans  and 

222 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

Americanism.  In  the  head  of  Pompey  he  marked  the 
c '  resemblance  to  American  politicians  which  I  had  noted 
in  all  the  Roman  statues."  "  Pompey,"  he  continued, 
"  was  like  the  picture  of  so  many  Southern  congressmen. " 

If  it  be  rejoined  gravely  that  the  head  of  Pompey  is 
not  in  the  scale  to-day  but  the  heads  of  his  countrymen 
nearly  two  thousand  years  after  he  served  as  a  model, 
perhaps  the  observation  of  Gladstone  may  be  more  con 
vincing.  On  the  18th  of  February,  1861,  the  first  Parlia 
ment  of  United  Italy  met  at  Turin.  From  the  very  open 
ing  of  this  exacting  test  was  there  any  lack  shown  of 
capacity  for  good  government?  On  the  contrary,  for 
Mr.  Gladstone  wrote  to  a  correspondent,  Sir  James 
Lacaita,  at  the  end  of  1862,  "  My  confidence  in  the  Ital 
ian  Parliament  and  people  increases  from  day  to  day. 
Their  self-command,  moderation,  patience,  firmness  and 
forethought  reaching  far  into  the  future,  are  really  be 
yond  all  praise."  Apparently  this  representative  infant 
would  bear  comparison  even  with  our  latest  exhibit  of 
Congress. 

The  innate  bent  of  the  Italian  for  politics  is,  in  truth, 
strongly  marked  and  nowhere  is  this  more  plainly  shown 
than  in  America,  in  spite  of  the  common  handicaps  of 
unfamiliarity  with  our  language  and  the  absorbing  de 
mands  of  his  struggle  to  earn  a  living.  He  is  quick  to 
comprehend  the  use  and  possible  force  of  his  ballot  here 
and  is  eager  to  become  naturalized  as soonas  he~  makes 

223 


The  Italian  in  America 


up  jus  ijniadjto  ma]^  tihin  ™nrtry  Jiis  home.  This  is  sig 
nally  shown  in  the  extraordinary  percentage  of  natural- 
/  ized  Italians  in  comparison  with  the  total  number  of 
Italian  birth  in  New  York  City.  The  carefully  prepared 
records  of  the  commission  established  by  the  Italian  Cham 
ber  of  Commerce  show  that  191.289  of  the  225,026  per 
sons  of  Italian  parentage  living  in  the  city  in  1900  were 
born  or  naturalized  Americans,  comprehending  83.4  per 
cent,  of  the  total  Italian  population. 

The  Italian  is  keen,  too,  in  the  study  of  his  advantage 
in  political  affiliations  and  in  local,  state  and  national 
party  contests.  The  more  influential  soon  win  their  own 
following  and  swing  organizations  with  as  much  dex 
terity  as  any  other  district  leaders.  There  is  no  device 
of  American  politics  which  they  cannot  readily  master, 
and  they  are  already  a  force  which  no  party  can  afford 
to  neglect  in  any  closely  divided  district,  city  or  State. 

There  is  nothing  surprising  in  this  ready  appreciation 
and  adaptability  in  view  of  the  natural  quickness  of  mind 
of  the  Latin  races  and  the  correspondence  now  existing 
between  Italian  and  American  political  institutions.  Like 
the  American,  the  present  Italian  institutions  are  mainly 
derived  from  English  models,  though  the  Italian  are  a 
closer  copy  of  the  English  to-day,  in  spite  of  their  being 
a  French  translation.  In  Italy,  as  in  England  and  Amer 
ica,  "  individual  liberty,  the  inviolability  of  property  and 
of  domicile,  freedom  of  the  press,  of  speech  and  of  asso- 

224 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

elation,  are  guaranteed."  In  the  eye  of  the  law  "  equal 
rights  and  liberties  are  granted  to  all  citizens,"  says 
Luigi  Yillari.  Usually  the  franchise  is  restricted  to  the 
payers  of  direct  taxes,  or  of  farm  or  house  rent,  at  or 
over  a  fixed  minimum.  The  proportion  of  voters  to  the 
total  population  is  stated  by  Yillari  to  be  seven  per  cent., 
but  this  percentage  is  advancing  steadily  with  the  rising 
ability  to  read  and  write,  another  requirement  for  the 
franchise.  Even  if  an  Italian  has  not  acquired  the  right 
to  vote  in  his  own  country,  he  is  likely  to  press  for  it  the 
more  urgently  here  because  his  poorest  neighbor  may 
now  excel  him  in  privilege,  power  and  pride. 

A  further  objection  is  raised  to  Italian  immigration* 
that  its  influx  is  adding  to  the  heterogeneous  character 
of  our  population  and  inevitably  rendering  the  problem 
of  assimilation  more  difficult  of  solution.  If  it  claimed 
that  the  immigration  from  Northern  Europe  has  been 
chiefly  our  kinsfolk,  begotten  from  common  stock,  whence 
sprang  our  Anglo-Saxon  institutions,  and  sharing  our  aims 
and  ambitions.  It  is  remarked  that  the  assimilation  of 
this  stock  has  naturally  been  easy  and  rapid,  and  that 
in  the  second  generation  there  were  no  hyphenated  Ameri 
cans.  " And  why  not?  Because  these  immigrants  were 
onr  rflp.ml  cousins  and  brothers,  taking  their  places  in  our 
national  home  as  naturally  as  though  born  under  the 
same  roof -tree,  since  the  difference  was  one  in  fact,  not 
of  birth  blood,  but  of  hirthp1a.ce. ' ' 

225 


The  Italian  in  America 

This  happy  condition  has  been  gravely  disturbed,  it  is 
said,  by  the  advent  of  immigration  from  Italy  and  in  gen 
eral  from  Southern  Europe  of  alien  racial  stocks  "  which 
have  not  known  the  ancestral  ties  and  associations  and 
sentiments  and  trend  of  the  old  stock  as  the  earlier  immi 
grants  knew  and  shared  them."  It  is  claimed  that  these 
differing  strains  of  blood  are  essentially  antagonistic  to 
our  own  and  can  only  be  assimilated  with  great  difficulty 
and  delay,  and  possibly  never. 

There  is  an  obvious  assumption,  to  start  with,  that  the 
gravity  of  the  problem  of  assimilation  advances  with  the 
number  of  the  races  to  be  assimilated,  and  that  heterogen 
eity  is  in  itself  a  ground  of  valid  objection.  It  is  easier 
to  assert  than  to  maintain  this  by  any  convincing  proof. 
It  is  urged  in  opposition  by  close  students  of  the  subject, 
whose  examinations  are  entitled  to  careful  consideration, 
that  heterogeneity  under  certain  conditions,  and  espe 
cially  under  those  existing  in  America,  inevitably  operates 
to  advance  assimilation  instead  of  retarding  it. 

When  one  race  enters  the  home  of  another,"  as  one 
observer  remarks,  "  racial  prejudice  and  racial  vanity 
will  cause  comparisons  that  are  bitter  and  dangerous,  as 
they  are  when  two  individuals  are  compared.  When 
there  are  several  races  in  the  field  of  comparison,  ill-feeling 
cannot  be  so  easily  aroused.  You  may  tell  Mr.  Jones 
that  Mr.  Smith  is  the  most  intelligent  man  in  the  street, 
and  Mr.  Jones  will  show  no  irritation  at  this  comparison 

226 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

of  Mr.  Smith  with  himself  and  others.  But  tell  Mr. 
Jones  that  Mr.  Smith  is  more  intelligent  than  he  is  and 
you  will  straightway  observe  some  symptoms  of  wounded 
vanity. 

"  While  there  are  many  races  of  immigrants  to  Amer 
ica,  they  may  be  greeted  with  prejudice,  but  it  cannot  be 
as  bitterly  shown  and  cannot  continue  as  long  as  it  would 
if  there  Were  only  two  elements  concerned.  One  race 
will  not  continue  to  strut  before  all  the  others,  and  it 
is  not  likely  that  any  two  or  three  will  unite  in  strong 
prejudice  against  the  rest.  "When  prejudice  and  bigotry 
are  eliminated,  different  races  will  readily  associate  and 
assimilation  will  be  rapid. 

1 '  As  the  number  of  immigrant  races  has  taken  the  bit- ' 
terness  from  prejudice  against  immigration,  so  also  the 
establishment  of  the  Jews  has  done  away  with  the  ill-j 
feeling  that  existed  between  Catholics  and  Protestants  1 
in  America.     A  religious  body  will  not  attack  two  others** 
with  the  virulence  that  it  can  show  toward  a  single  rival, 
and  it  would  be  absurd  for  two  religious  elements  to 
quarrel  while  there  is  a  third  in  the  field  to  laugh  at  the 
contestants.     The  Jewish  immigration  has  been  a  bless 
ing  for  this  very  reason,  and  the  heterogeneous  character 
of  immigration  is  as  great  a  blessing,  since  it  has  relieved  us 
of  the  danger  of  racial  movements  in  the  United  States." 

A  striking  example  of  undeniable  assimilation  is  the" 
one  cited  by  the  editor  of  the  i(  McKeesport  News,"  No- 

227 


The  Italian  in  America 

vember  11,  1903,  in  his  intelligent  discussion  of  "The 
Immigration  Problem." 

"Massachusetts,  so  often  called  the  cradle  of  liberty 
and  the  cornerstone  of  the  American  government,  now 
has  a  population  of  2,806,346,  one-third  of  which  is  for 
eign  born,  while  considerably  more  than  half  of  the 
whole  number  have  foreign-born  parents.  This  large 
proportion  of  the  foreign  element  is  exceeded  by  that  of 
only  two  other  states  in  the  Union,  and  the  old  Bay  State 
can  no  longer  be  looked  upon  as  the  exclusive  home  of 
the  Yankee. 

"But  nothing  proves  more  conclusively  the  virility  of 
the  native  JSTew  England  stock  than  the  fact  that  despite 
this  preponderance  of  foreign  born  and  foreign  blood 
within  her  borders,  Massachusetts  still  remains  distinct 
ively  American.  The  old-time  ideas  and  customs  con 
tinue,  and  there  has  been  no  change  either  in  the  laws  or 
institutions  in  order  to  adapt  the  State  to  its  new  inhabi 
tants.  Tbe^standard  of  pure  Americanism  seems  to  be 
as  securely  planted  as  it  ever  was.  Massachusetts  is  per- 
forming  her  duty  of  absorbingthe  many  diverse  nation 
alities  which  have  come  under  hexMlominion,  and  is  gradu- 
ally  welding  the  combined  product  into  a  citizenship  which 
is  an  improvement  in  some  respects  over  the  unemotional 
remnants  of  our  ancestral  race  who  never  came  west,  but 
stayed  to  ossify  or  decay  along  the  inhospitable  and 
barren  interior  of  old  New  England. 

228 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

"  The  people  who  are  now  taking  possession  of  Massa 
chusetts  are  Canadian,  Irish,  English,  Swedish,  Scotch, 
German,  Kussian,  Italian,  Polish  and  Portuguese.  Ire 
land  has  given  the  greatest  number  of  immigrants,  with 
Canada  next  in  order.  Other  countries  are  far  in  the 
rear  of  these  two  as  contributors  to  the  population. 

"  The  success  with  which  Massachusetts  has  met  the  im 
migration  problem  indicates  that  we  have  little  to  fear 
from  healthy,  law-abiding  aliens  coming  from  Europe  to 
start  life  anew  in  a  more  promising  land.  America  is  so 
firmly  wedded  to  its  customs,  language  and  religious  be 
liefs;  its  institutions,  laws  and  principles  of  government 
are  so  securely  established  and  are  all  so  liberal,  well- 
directed  and  beneficent  that  the  foreigner  in  the  course 
of  a  few  years'  residence  becomes  so  thoroughly  Ameri 
canized  that  he  assists  rather  than  impedes  the  progress 
of  the  country  towards  its  inevitable  continental  sov 
ereignty  and  glorious  destiny." 

These  points  appear  to  be  well  taken,  and  the  view  in 
general  is  confirmed  by  the  attested  rapidity  of  assimila 
tion  in  this  country  and  particularly  in  New  York  City, 
where  the  variety  and  divergencies  of  racial  types  are 
probably  greater  than  in  any  city  in  the  world.  In  an 
interesting  discussion  of  this  subject  in  his  lecture  on  "The 
Key  to  the  Twentieth  Century,"  Dr.  Thomas  Green  has 
characterized  the  ability  of  the  United  States  to  absorb 
and  Americanize  foreign  elements  as  one  of  the  most 

229 


The  Italian  in  America 

wonderful  achievements  of  the  nation,  and  the  most  hope 
ful  sign  of  its  stability.  He  notes  how  after  a  year  or 
two  in  the  public  schools  the  children  of  foreign  birth  or 
descent "  come  trooping  down  the  steps  of  the  schoolhouse 
with  little  flags  in  their  right  hands  and  singing  'My 
Country,  'Tis  of  Thee.' :  They  are  just  as  good  Ameri 
cans  in  his  eye  as  though  their  forefathers  had  been  here 
before  the  Revolution. 

The  certainty  of  this  remarkable  progress  toward  assim 
ilation  by  no  means  conveys,  of  course,  any  license  to 
neglect  the  precautions  assuring  Americanization.  There 
are  grave  exceptions  and  shortcomings  in  this  progress, 
particularly  in  the  coal-mining  districts,  which  urgently 
need  attention  and  remedy.  But  it  is  absurd  to  deny  or 
distrust  the  assimilating  powers  of  this  country  because 
of  the  scandalous  lack  in  certain  localities  of  proper  sani 
tary  and  educational  provisions  as  well  as  of  any  active 
sympathy  and  co-operation  with  the  struggling  immi 
grants. 

Kabbi  Fleischer  has  conspicuously  punctured  the  claim, 
too,  that  the  older  immigrants  were  essentially  of  the 
material  whereof  to  make  "  an  Anglo-American  alliance. " 
"If  the  Irish  feel  somewhat  related  to  the  English,"  he 
said  in  a  discussion  at  a  meeting  in  Boston  in  the  winter 
of  1903-04,  "  they  feel  it  very  disagreeably,  and  the 
Jews,  so  dominant  in  New  York  to-day,  certainly  are 
not  related  to  the  English." 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

*** 

There  is  substantial  reason  for  holding  that  the  rapidity 
of  assimilation  is  more  largely  dependent  on  social  con 
ditions,  the  intimacy  of  distribution,  the  fusion  of  classes 
and  the  common  education  and  language  than  upon  any 
approximation  of  racial  strains.  Particular  encourage 
ment  for  this  view  may  be  drawn  from  a  racial  charac 
teristic  of  the  Italian,  such  as  was  claimed  for  the  Greek 
in  the  famous  funeral  oration  put  by  Thucidides  in  the 
mouth  of  Pericles.  This  is  a  distinguishing  faculty  of 
adaptation — Eutrapelos — "a  happy  and  gracious  flexibil 
ity,"  as  Matthew  Arnold  translates  it.  This  conforming 
faculty  is  not  only  obvious  in  the  issue  of  intermarriages, 
but  in  the  very  plain  Americanization  of  the  children  born 
in  America  of  native  Italian  parents.  Ho  wells  and  other 
observers,  too,  have  particularly  noted  the  readiness  with 
which  almost  all  Italians  learn  English  and  their  quick 
appreciation  of  American  progressiveness  and  in  partic 
ular  of  the  necessity  of  the  American  standard  of  educa 
tion  for  the  advancement  of  their  children. 

Furthermore,  the  fear  lest  the  purity  of  the  " Anglo- 
Saxon  strain ' '  be  defiled  by  the  alien  influx  from  South 
ern  Europe  is  only  a  conceit  in  grave  clothes,  which  has 
been  too  often  resurrected.  .Daniel  Defoe  flayed  it  alive 
two  hundred  years  ago,  but  its  corpse  has  often  been 
paraded  in  this  country  and  elsewhere,  in  spite  of  its 
ancient  and  fishlike  smell.  When  alarmists  in  England 
took  offence  at  the  entry  of  the  Dutch  with  William  of 

231 


The  Italian  in  'America 

Orange  at  the  English  Revolution,  Defoe  wrote  keenly, 
in  spite  of  the  rudeness  of  his  satire,  in  the  "  True-Born 
Englishman ' '  : 

"  For  Englishmen  to  boast  of  generation 
Cancels  their  knowledge  and  lampoons  the  nation 
A  true-born  Englishman's  a  contradiction, 
In  speech  an  irony,  in  fact  a  fiction. 


These  are  the  heroes  that  despise  the  Dutch, 
And  rail  at  newcome  foreigners  so  much. 
Forgetting  that  themselves  are  all  derived 
From  the  most  scoundrel  race  that  ever  lived; 
A  horrid  crowd  of  gambling  thieves  and  drones, 
Who  ransacked  kingdoms  and  dispeopled  towns; 
The  Pict  and  painted  Briton,  treacherous  Scot, 
Norwegian  pirates,  buccaneering  Danes, 
Whose  red-haired  offspring  everywhere  remains; 
Who,  joined  with  Norman  French,  compound  the  breed 
From  whence  your  true-born  Englishmen  proceed." 


Moreover,  upon  what  examination  worthy  of  the  name 
has  the  Southern  Latin  stock,  as  exhibited  in  Italy,  for 
example,  been  stamped  as  " undesirable?"  Is  it  unde 
sirable  to  perpetuate  the  blood,  the  memorials  and  tradi 
tions  of  the  greatest  empire  of  antiquity,  which  spread  the 
light  of  its  civilization  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the 
North  Sea  and  the  Baltic  ?  Does  a  stigma  recall  that 
this  stock  was  the  fountain  head  of  the  Renaissance  that 
dispelled  the  gloom  of  the  Middle  Ages  ?  What  author 
ity  proscribes  the  land  that  gave  birth  to  Galileo,  the 

232 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

most  forceful  demonstrator  of  the  earth's  motion  and 
orbit,  and  to  Columbus  and  the  Cabots,  who  brought  the 
New  World  to  light  "  to  redress  the  balance  of  the  Old?  " 
How  strange  is  this  flaunt  of  prejudice  in  the  faces  of 
Dante  and  Tasso  and  Petrarch — of  Raphael  and  Michael 
Angelo  and  Canova — of  Verdi  and  Rossiiy,  Bellini  and 
Donizetti — of  Ristori  and  Duse  and  Salvini  and  Rossi — of 
Alfieri  and  Giacometti — of  Cavour,  Mazzini  and  Garibaldi ! 
What  freak  of  conceit  ignores  historians  like  Carlo  Botta 
and  Pasquale  Villari,  romancists  like  Mauzoni  and  D' An- 
nunzio,  masters  of  language  like  Bartelli  and  De  Amicis, 
and  overlooks  astronomers  like  Schiaparelli  and  elec 
tricians  like  Ferraris  and  Marconi,  on  the  loftiest  ranges 
of  applied  science  ?  In  the  field  of  railway  engineering 
there  are  no  more  extraordinary  memorials  than  the  three 
grand  passageways  of  the  Mt.  Cenis,  St.  Gothard  and 
Simplon  tunnels,  the  enduring  monuments  of  "  Southern 
Latin  "  engineers  and  constructors;  and  the  superb  Turin 
Exposition  in  its  exhibit  of  the  advances  of  Italian  arti 
ficers  of  every  kind  is  an  ample  rejoinder  to  any  question 
ing  of  the  capacity  of  Italian  artisans  measured  by  any 
existing  standard  of  progress. 

It  may  be  rejoined  that  this  stamp  of  disparagement 
was  not  really  meant  to  apply  to  the  Italian  artist  and 
artisan,  but  only  to  the  mass  of  immigration  from  the  agri 
cultural  districts.  Is  there  then  any  better  reason  for 
the  proscription  of  the  Italian  farm  hand,  grape  grower 

233 


The  Italian  in  America 

or  market  gardener  ?  If  their  competence  as  agricultural 
laborers  is  in  question,  there  is  abundant  witness  to  their 
efficiency,  even  under  the  handicap  of  primitive  tools  and 
methods.  A  recent  observer  of  unquestioned  independ 
ence,  standing  and  opportunity  for  thorough  observation, 
P.  D.  Fischer,  has  written  to  this  effect  in  his  able  survey 
"Italien  und  die  Italiener  am  Schlusse  des  neunzehnten 
Jahrhunderts:  "  "  Perhaps  the  greatest  advantage  of 
Italian  agriculture  lies  in  the  character  of  the  men  who 
practice  it.  He  who  has  seen  with  his  own  eyes  the 
peasant  at  work  will  cease  talking  about  Italian  indolence. 
Notwithstanding  his  ignorance,  this  peasant  is  the  very 
best  kind  of  material.  If  inferior  in  physical  strength  to 
the  Swiss,  German  or  English  laborer,  he  is  the  equal  of 
the  representative  of  any  other  nation  whatever  in  native 
intelligence  and  persistent  application  to  business;  while 
he  certainly  surpasses  them  all  in  thrift,  sobriety  and 
good  temper."  A  sufficient  reason  noted  by  Herr 
Fischer  for  the  relative  lack  of  advance  and  prosperity 
of  the  Italian  agriculturist  is  the  fundamental  and  thus 
far  insuperable  obstacle  of  land  monopoly  in  Italy. 

Does  their  poverty  unfit  them  for  America  ?  The  piti 
ful  meagreness  of  the  living  of  masses  of  people  in  the  de 
pressed  districts  is  unquestioned.  There  is  just  compas 
sion  for  the  wretched  lives  of  the  charcoal  burners  of  the 
Maremma,  for  the  women  toiling  on  the  rice  lands  of  the 
Romagna  from  dawn  to  sunset,  for  the  thousands  of  weary 

234 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

straw  plaiters,  sometimes  earning  no  more  than  twenty 
centesimi  or  four  cents  a  day,  and  for  those  even  more 
miserable,  like  the  sufferers  making  dwellings  of  holes  in 
the  rocks  at  Grotta  Rossa,  who  may  be  seen  at  any  time 
beside  a  spring  or  rivulet,  dipping  in  the  water  a  handful 
of  leaves  or  a  few  fresh  bean  pods  to  be  eaten  as  a  salad 
with  their  dry,  hard  bread. 

One  may  fail  to  see,  however,  anything  in  this  dejec 
tion  of  living  that  can  be  brought  up  as  a  cause  for  ex 
clusion  in  view  of  the  door  held  open  heretofore  without 
any  disastrous  effect  to  the  poorest  peasants  of  the  north 
of  Europe,  and  especially  to  the  famine- stricken  people  of 
Ireland.  There  is  nothing  in  the  condition  of  any  part 
of  Italy  more  wretched  and  depressing  than  was  seen  in 
Ireland  during  the  rising  tide  of  immigration  to  this  coun 
try.  "I  remember,"  writes  a  German  traveller  in  Ire 
land  at  the  time  of  the  famine,  "when  I  saw  the  poor 
Letts  in  Livonia,  I  used  to  pity  them  for  having  to  live 
in  huts  built  of  the  unhewn  logs  of  trees,  the  crevices  being 
stopped  with  moss.  .  .  .  "Well,  Heaven  pardon  my 
ignorance!  Now  that  I  have  seen  Ireland,  it  seems  to 
me  that  the  Letts,  the  Esthonians  and  the  Finlanders  lead 
a  life  of  comparative  comfort,  and  poor  Paddy  would  feel 
like  a  king  with  their  house,  their  habiliments  and  their 
daily  fare.  ...  A  French  author,  Beaumont,  who 
had  seen  the  Irish  peasant  in  his  cabin  and  the  North 
American  Indian  in  his  wigwam,  has  assured  us  that  the 

235 


The  Italian  in  'America 

savage  is  better  provided  for  than  the  poor  man  in  Ire 
land.  .  .  . 

"A  Russian  peasant,  no  doubt,  is  the  slave  of  a  harder 
master,  but  still  he  is  fed  and  housed  to  his  content  and 
no  trace  of  mendicancy  is  to  be  seen  in  him.  The  Hun 
garians  are  certainly  not  among  the  best-used  people  in 
the  world,  still  what  wheat  and  bread  and  what  wine  has 
even  the  humblest  among  them  for  his  daily  fare !  .  .  . 
Servia  and  Bosnia  are  reckoned  among  the  most  wretched 
countries  of  Europe,  but,  at  least,  the  people,  if  badly 
housed,  are  well  clad. 

"In  Ireland  beggary  or  abject  poverty  is  the  prevailing 
rule.  ...  It  seems  as  if  wretchedness  had  prevailed 
there  from  time  immemorial — as  if  rags  had  succeeded 
rags,  bog  formed  over  bog,  ruins  given  birth  to  ruins  and 
beggars  had  begotten  beggars  for  a  long  series  of  cen 
turies." 

Outside  of  the  comparatively  small  number  of  political 
refugees  and  others  driven  from  their  native  land  by  in 
tentional  persecution,  the  masses  that  have  come  over 
from  Europe  have  crossed  the  ocean  intentionally  to  better 
their  condition  and  uplift  their  so-called  "standard  of 
living. "  The  existence  of  lower  standards  in  Europe  with 
scarcely  an  exception  has  failed  to  depress  the  American 
standard  of  living,  which  has  indeed  risen  progressively 
in  spite  of  the  low  standard  bugbear.  Jijmmigrants  were 
contented  they  would  not  have  cut  all  their  home  ties  to 

236 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

come  to  this  country,  and  there  is  no  ground  for  assum 
ing  that  theTtaljaflfj  n,r^  V>q^lnxrnW|  in  lifti^  themselves 
to  the  American, 


Is  their  blood  of  so  lowly  an  extraction  that  it  is  likely 
to  impair  the  fluid  that  has  been  transmitted  from  our 
Pilgrim  forefathers  or  the  first  families  of  Virginia,  or 
the  Dutch  patroons  or  other  stocks  expecting  homage? 
Without  pausing  to  examine  the  actual  mixtures  in  the 
veins  of  our  early  colonists,  which  the  late  Senator 
Hoar  and  others  have  particularly  noted,  it  is  probably 
sufficient  to  observe  that  any  dread  of  defilement 
may  be  relieved  by  the  assurance  of  Charles  Kingsley  : 
"The  physical  and  intellectual  superiority  of  the  high 
born  is  only  preserved  as  it  was  in  the  old  Norman 
times  by  the  continual  practical  abnegation  of  the  very 
caste  lie  on  which  they  pride  themselves,  by  contin 
ual  renovation  of  their  race  by  intermarriage  with  the 
ranks  below  them.  The  blood  of  Odin  flowed  in  the 
veins  of  Norman  William  ;  true  —  and  so  did  the  tanner's 
of  Falaise."  Even  without  the  benefit  of  the  infusion 
of  rich  old  American  blood,  there  appears  to  be  much 
promise  in  the  offspring  of  the  poorest  Italian  stocks 
where  the  nurturing  conditions  are  even  slightly  favor 
able. 

In  the  closing  year  of  our  Civil  War  William  Dean 
Ho  wells  examined  the  work  of  the  "  Protestant  Eagged 
Schools"  at  Naples  only  a  few  years  after  they  were 

237 


The  Italian  in  America 

"  established  by  the  wise  philanthropy  of  the  Protestant 
residents."  The  foundation  of  these  schools  was  not 
older  "than  the  union  of  Naples  with  the  Kingdom  of 
Italy  (in  1860)  when  toleration  of  Protestantism  was 
decreed  by  law." 

In  spite  of  the  declaration  of  the  Protestant  character 
of  the  schools  and  the  fact  that  the  Protestant  Bible  was 
placed  in  the  hands  of  the  children  to  be  studied  and 
understood,  "  the  parents  of  the  children  were  so  anxious 
to  secure  them  the  benefits  of  education  that  they  will 
ingly  ran  the  risk  of  their  becoming  heretics."  These 
parents  were  principally  ' i  people  of  the  lower  classes — 
laborers,  hackmen,  fishermen,  domestics  and  very  small 
shop  keepers."  The  first  undertaking  of  the  teachers  of 
these  schools  was  to  wash  the  children,  educating  them 
"  corporeally  first  of  all."  Then  they  set  about  "  cleans 
ing  them  morally,"  and  next  began  to  educate  them  in 
various  branches  of  learning. 

The  good  effects  of  the  training  were  felt  almost  imme 
diately.  When  Mr.  Howells  visited  the  schools,  he  saw 
that  the  text-books  were  kept  neat  and  clean,  as  were  the 
hands  and  faces  of  the  children.  He  attended  a  regular 
exercise  of  the  reading  class  of  girls  and  was  strongly 
impressed  by  the  exceptional  average  of  proficiency.  All 
the  girls  in  the  class  "seemed  to  have  a  lively  under 
standing  of  what  they  read," — and  he  "never  heard 
American  children  of  their  age  read  nearly  so  well." 

238 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

There  was  "  not  a  clouded  countenance — nor  a  dirty  hand 
among  them."  "  We  should  have  great  hopes  for  a  na 
tion  of  which  the  children  can  be  taught  to  wash  them 
selves.  ' '  The  boys  in  the  upper  classes,  he  reports,  were 
"well  up  in  their  studies."  Their  drawing  books  were 
' 'prodigies  of  neatness,  and  betrayed  that  aptness  for 
form  and  facility  of  execution  which  are  natural  to  the 
Italian."  The  feasibility  of  carrying  children  of  even 
the  most  ignorant  people  in  Italy  far  above  the  range  of 
elementary  education  was  demonstrated  in  these  schools 
in  the  extension  of  studies  to  higher  mathematics,  linear 
drawing,  the  French  language  and  courses  in  Italian  and 
ancient  history. 

Under  the  depressing  influences  of  their  surroundings 
and  a  lack  of  any  stimulus  of  competition  and  distinct 
prospect  of  advancement,  it  is  not  to  be  wondered  at  that 
there  was  a  noticeable  flagging  in  attendance  and  appli 
cation  after  the  majority  had  acquired  an  elementary 
education,  but  the  demonstration  of  their  teachableness 
was  incontestable.  "Up  to  a  certain  point,"  indeed,  as 
Mr.  Ho  wells  observes,  "  the  Neapolitan  children  learn  so 
rapidly  and  willingly  that  it  can  be  hardly  other  than  a 
pleasure  to  teach  them."  "Just  and  consistent  usage," 
he  noted  further,  "  has  the  best  influence  upon  them,  and 
one  boy  was  pointed  out  as  quite  docile  and  manageable 
whose  parents  had  given  him  up  as  incorrigible  before  he 
entered  the  school."  He  observed  too  that  "  the  boys  of 


The  Italian  in  America 

these  schools  never  played  truant  and  are  never  severely 
beaten  in  school." 

It  was  remarkable  also  that  these  " heretic  schools" 
excited  so  little  animosity  and  interference.  Only  one 
isolated  attempt  to  hamper  the  progress  of  these  schools 
on  the  part  of  any  of  the  Neapolitan  clergy  was  noted, 
and  the  young  scholars  had  no  plaguing  to  fear  from  the 
mass  of  the  street  children.  This  is  largely  attributable, 
as  Mr.  Howells  thought,  to  the  "  peaceful,  uncombative 
nature  of  Italian  boys,  who  get  on  with  much  less  way 
laying  and  thumping  and  bullying  than  boys  of  North 
ern  blood."  Whatever  the  reason,  none  of  them  were 
"  molested  by  their  companions  who  still  lived  the  wild 
life  of  the  streets." 

These  observations  of  Mr.  Howells  are  fully  confirmed 
by  the  results  of  my  own  wide-ranging  personal  investi 
gations  and  inquiries.  Tho  npprprn'n.tion  of  education  here 
appears  to  be  intensified  by  the  limitation  or  denial  of  its 
privileges  under  the  conditions  existing  in  Italy  before 
nm'fip.?rh'nn ,  Evpn  f-.hn  most  ignorant  who  have  come  here 
are  quick  to  see  how  essential  it  is  to  progress,  and  they 
are  determined  that  their  children  shall  not  be  hampered 
for  lack  of  it  like  themselves. 

"  In  all  grades  of  the  New  York  City  schools,"  as  Mr. 
Lawrence  Franklin  has  noted,  "  teachers  agree  in  com 
mending  the  intelligence  and  studiousness  of  Italian  chil 
dren,  for  next  to  the  Jews  they  are  the  best  scholars  in 

240 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

the  matter  of  application.  The  boys  are  especially  clever 
in  drawing,  modelling  and  manual  work  which  requires 
delicate  fingers.  The  girls  are  better  in  languages  and 
history.  One  has  only  to  pay  a  visit  to  the  Baxter  Street 
school  and  observe  the  number  of  neat,  bright  looking 
Italian  children  there  to  realize  how  unjust  we  have  been 
in  treating  this  race  as  outcasts  and  aliens." 

Jacob  A.  Eiis  attests  the  same  teachableness  of  the 
Italian  children  and  the  effect  of  their  education  extend 
ing  to  their  homes  and  parents.  After  remarking  the 
original  doubts  or  prejudice  of  their  instructors  here,  he 
notes  the  disappearance  of  their  distrust  and  how  ' '  to 
day  the  Italian  children  are  gladly  welcomed.  Their 
sunny  temper,  which  no  hovel  is  dreary  enough,  no  hard 
ship  has  power  to  cloud,  has  made  them  universal  favor 
ites,  and  the  discovery  has  been  made  by  their  teachers 
that,  as  the  crowds  pressed  harder,  their  school  rooms  have 
marvelously  expanded,  until  they  embraced  within  their 
walls  an  unsuspected  multitude,  even  many  a  slum  tene 
ment  itself,  cellar,  stoop,  attic  and  all.  Every  lesson  of 
cleanliness,  of  order,  and  of  English  taught  at  the  school 
is  reflected  into  some  wretched  home  and  rehearsed  there 
as  far  as  the  limited  opportunity  will  allow." 

The  assimilating  effect  of  contact  and  education  here 
is  also  particularly  remarked  by  Dr.  J.  H.  Senner,  for 
many  years  Commissioner  of  Immigration  at  the  port  of 
New  York.  "The  common  opinion,"  he  writes,  "as  to 

241 


The  Italian  in  America 

the  inability  of  Italian  immigrants  to  assimilate,  is,  I  am 
frank  to  state,  not  shared  by  me.  The  acquirement  of 
/  English  is  no  more  difficult  to  mature  Italians  than  to 
other  non-English  speaking  immigrants;  children  born 
in  this  country  of  Italian  parents  can  scarcely  be  distin 
guished  by  their  speech  or  their  habits  from  the  children 
of  native  Americans.  The  public  schools  of  New  York 
bear  testimony  to  this  statement.  The  Eev.  Bona venture 
Piscopo,  of  the  Church  of  the  Most  Precious  Blood  (the 
largest  Italian  Roman  Catholic  Parish  in  the  United 
States),  is  my  authority  for  the  statement  that  all  the 
Italian  priests,  in  their  religious  services,  their  Sunday 
school  and  even  in  their  confessionals,  are  obliged  to  use 
the  English  if  they  hope  to  be  understood  at  all  by  the 
second  generation." 

The  expert  observation  of  Jacob  Riis  further  assures 
the  certainty  of  assimilation  and  progress  even  under  the 
most  unfavorable  conditions.  Of  the  advance  of  the  Nea 
politan  immigrant  he  says:  "  Starting  thus,  below  the 
bottom  as  it  were  (in  the  congested  heart  of  New  York 
City),  he  has  an  uphill  journey  before  him  to  work  out 
of  the  slums,  and  the  promise,  to  put  it  mildly,  is  not  good. 
He  does  it  all  the  same,  or  if  not  he,  his  boy.  It  is  not 
an  Italian  sediment  that  breeds  the  tough.  Parental 
authority  has  a  strong  enough  grip  on  the  lad  in  Mulberry 
Street  to  make  him  work  and  that  is  his  salvation.  c  In 
seventeen  years,'  said  the  teacher  of  the  oldest  Italian 

242 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

ragged  school  in  the  city,  that  day  and  night  takes  in  quite 
six  hundred,  '  I  have  seen  my  boys  work  up  into  decent 
mechanics  and  useful  citizens  almost  to  a  man,  and  of  my 
girls  only  two  I  know  of  have  gone  astray. '  I  have  ob 
served  the  process  often  enough  myself  to  know  that  she 
was  right.  It  is  to  be  remembered,  furthermore,  that  her 
school  is  in  the  very  heart  of  the  Five  Points  district,  and 
takes  in  always  the  worst  and  the  dirtiest  crowd  of  chil 
dren." 

This  expert  evidence  of  the  teachableness  of  the  children 
is  confirmed  by  hundred  of  reports  which  I  obtained  from 
teachers  and  others  in  intimate  contact  with  the  Italian 
children  in  all  American  States  where  Italians  are  now 
living  in  considerable  numbers.  It  is  impracticable  to 
do  more  than  summarize  this  mass  of  testimony  here,  but 
a  sample  report  received  from  Mr.  L.  H.  Lancaster,  Sec 
retary  of  the  Lafourche  Progressive  Union,  Thibodaux, 
Louisiana,  is  quoted  in  part,  as  the  Italian  immigration 
to  Louisiana  has  been  mainly  of  the  class  that  has  been 
accounted  most  ignorant  and  unprogressive. 

(  ( The  class  with  which  I  have  come  in  contact, ' '  writes 
Mr.  Lancaster,  "is  not  what  would  be  considered  desir 
able,  being  entirely  of  the  Sicilian  type.  While  the  orig 
inal  infusion  was  of  a  low  class,  illiterate  and  tending  to 
be  unruly  and  used  only  for  hard  manual  labor,  having 
had  no  training  nor  education  and  not  being  adaptable 
for  scientific  pursuits  nor  for  diversified  or  intensified  agri- 

243 


The  Italian  in  America 

cultural  pursuits  without  close  attention — yet  I  can  say 
that  their  offspring  are  the  brightest  and  most  ambitious 
and  quickest  of  perception  that  we  have  in  the  public 
schools.  Moreover,  they  are  of  a  very  amiable  and  polite 
disposition. ' ' 

From  hundreds  of  available  instances  also  of  excep 
tional  proficiency,  I  may  quote  one  recorded  in  the  "  Roch 
ester  (K  Y.)  Times  "  of  July  6,  1904,  as  follows: 

"  That  the  immigration  danger  is  not  the  bugaboo  that 
many  folks  are  inclined  to  consider  it  is  evidenced  in  the 
fact  that  two  of  the  five  free  scholarships  in  the  Depart 
ment  of  Mechanic  Arts  at  the  Mechanics  Institute  this 
year  go  to  foreign  youths,  one  a  Russian- German  who 
was  unable  to  speak  English  four  years  ago  when  he  ar 
rived  in  this  country,  and  the  other,  the  son  of  an  Italian 
laborer.  These  scholarships  entitle  the  holder  to  three 
years'  instruction  in  a  mechanical,  architectural  or  en 
gineering  course  and  are  worth  $225  each.  They  were 
won  in  brisk  competition,  the  examinations  dealing  with 
the  subjects,  arithmetic,  geography,  grammar  and  Amer 
ican  history. 

1  £  Israel  Bernhardt  and  Dominic  Lucca  give  promise  of 
being  successful  men  and  a  credit  to  their  race  as  well  as 
to  the  proud  country  of  their  adoption. ' ' 

Kate  Holliday  Claghorn,  Assistant  Registrar  of  Rec 
ords  of  the  ' '  Tenement  House  Department ' '  of  New 
York  City,  further  meets  the  point  of  complaint  which 

244 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

has  been  brought  against  Italian  parents  with  seeming 
injustice.  "  The  Italians  have  been  reproached,"  she 
writes,  "with  denying  advantages  to  their  children  for 
the  sake  of  the  money  to  be  got  by  the  children's  labor, 
but  a  special  investigation,  made  some  years  ago  by  a  com 
mittee  of  sociological  specialists,  shows  that  the  charge, 
when  made  a  general  one,  is  without  foundation.  The 
committee  testified  in  the  plainest  terms  to  the  fact  that 
the  Italian  family,  even  in  circumstances  of  the  greatest 
destitution,  showed  at  least  the  normal  amount  of  inter 
est  in  the  education  of  their  children,  and  in  many  cases 
made  special  sacrifices  to  secure  it." 

As  a  matter  of  course,  assimilation  is  slower  in  the  case 
of  the  adult  immigrant  than  in  that  of  his  children,  but 
there  is  no  reason  to  question  a  more  or  less  steady  and 
hopeful  progress  of  the  mass  of  the  immigrants,  both 
women  and  men,  in  proportion  to  their  opportunities  for 
advance  and  the  years  of  their  settlement.  Their  educa 
tion  by  contact  and  observation  goes  on  irresistibly,  and 
the  extent  of  their  enlightenment  through  newspapers 
and  books  is  not  ordinarily  realized. 

Italians  who  can  read  are  commonly  fond  of  reading 
and  those  who  have  not  learned  to  read  will  listen  eagerly 
to  any  reading  they  can  understand.     The  number  and*/ 
circulation  of  the  Italian  newspapers  in  this  country  show 
the'i'ising  appreciation  of  the  news  of  the  day  on  the  part 

of  the  newcomers  unable  as  yet  to  read  the  papers  printed 

— — 


The  Italian  in  America 

in  English.  Yet  the  stated  number  of  copies  printed  by 
any  Italian  publisher  is  far  below  the  actual  circulation, 
for  the  copies  pass  from  hand  to  hand  and  reach  a  num 
ber  of  readers  far  in  excess  of  the  subscribers  or  buyers. 
The  practice  of  reading  aloud  from  a  paper  to  a  circle  of 
acquaintances  eager  to  hear  the  news  or  miscellany  or 
editorial  appeals  or  advertisements  vastly  expands  also 
the  nominal  range  of  these  mediums. 

The  recent  inquiry  of  a  reporter  for  the  New  York  "Sun' ' 
brought  out  also  very  clearly  the  extent  of  another  prac 
tice,  the  borrowing  of  books  which  the  readers  are  too 
poor  to  buy.  One  book  peddlar  told  the  reporter  that 
for  the  first  privilege  of  reading  an  uncut  book  he  charged 
about  a  third  of  the  market  price.  "  The  next  half  dozen 
readers  paid  about  20  cents  on  the  dollar.  Finally  it  ran 
down  by  stages  as  low  as  10  cents  or  even  5  for  a  week's 
use,  and  then  the  boys  on  the  ferry  boats  and  the  like  get 
their  turn  at  it. 

"  'And  where  do  you  get  your  books,'  the  walking 
library  was  asked. 

"  l  At  the  banker's,'  was  the  reply. 

"Nobody  can  tell  just  why  all  the  Italian  booksellers 
in  New  York  except  the  newspaper  publishers  are  bank 
ers,  but  they  are.  Not  all  the  Italian  bankers  are  book 
sellers,  but  every  bookseller  is  a  banker. 

"  There  are  from  a  dozen  to  twenty  of  them,  at  least 
one  or  two  in  each  Italian  center,  and  some  of  them  do 

246 


Progressive  Education  and  Assimilation 

a  very  large  trade.  Many  thousands  of  volumes  are  im 
ported  by  them  every  year,  chiefly  from  Milan,  Florence 
and  Rome,  and  besides  their  local  sales  one  or  two  of  them 
send  out  consignments  of  books  to  other  parts  of  the  coun- , 
try  where  there  are  large  Italian  settlements. 

"  Some  idea  of  the  extent  of  the  Italian  book  trade  in 
New  York  may  be  formed  from  the  fact  that  one  banker- 
bookseller,  one  of  the  largest,  publishes  a  copiously  illus 
trated  book  catalogue  of  176  pages,  with  a  fancy  cover 
representing  the  United  States  as  a  handsome  female  figure 
all  spangled  over  with  stars,  twining  one  arm  about  a 
pretty  Italian  woman  with  a  child,  while  with  the  other 
hand  she  points  to  the  setting  sun,  against  which  the 
Statue  of  Liberty  and  an  ocean  steamship  are  silhouetted. 

"  The  books  embraced  in  the  catalogue  cover  the  whole 
educational  field  to  begin  with.  Books  for  the  study  of 
English  and  Italian  are  numerous ;  dictionaries  and  gram 
mars  take  up  more  than  a  page.  Works  of  religious  in 
struction,  Italian  and  general  history  are  well  covered. 
The  decorative  arts  and  sciences,  abstract  and  applied,  fill 
many  pages." 

The  representative  heads  of  the  cities  chiefly  attracting 
Italian  immigration  and  settlement  are  among  the  most 
positive  in  their  conviction  of  the  feasibility  of  assimilation, 
and  their  attestation  of  the  industry,  thrift,  good  conduct 
and  certain  advance  to  good  citizenship  of  the  mass  of  the 
Italian  immigrants.  In  general  accord  with  this  view  too 

247 


The  Italian  in  America 

are  the  most  active  members  of  the  Board  of  Education, 
city  school  teachers,  public  and  private,  and  the  clergy 
coming  most  closely  in  contact  with  the  immigrants  and 
their  children. 

The  present  May  or  of  New  York,  George  B.  McClellan, 
has  been  particularly  observant  of  the  Italian  character 
and  progress,  even  under  conditions  must  unfavorable  to 
hopeful  development,  and  has  repeatedly  emphasized  his 
belief  in  their  certain  advance  to  good  citizenship.  In  a 
notably  incisive  discussion  of  the  relation  of  education  to 
immigration,  reported  by  Mr.  James  Creelman  in  "  The 
New  York  World,"  May  22nd,  1904,  the  Mayor  summed 
up  his  view  pithily  in  closing. 

^  "Already  we  are  beginning  to  feel  the  good  effect  of 
our  schools  upon  our  foreign-born  population.  Take  the 
Italians,  for  instance.  They  are  being  assimilated  very 
swiftly.  The  number  of  them  who  take  out  citizenship 
papers  increases  every  year.  They  make  good  citizens. 
So  I  find  with  other  nationalities.  The  schools  are  grad- 

s^ially  turning  all  the  elements  that  come  to  this  great 
clearing  port  of  the  American  Continent  into  a  common 
and  admirable  civic  type — American  to  the  core." 

ELIOT  LORD. 


248 


CHAPTEE  XII 

PRIVILEGES    AND    DUTIES    OF    ITALIAN-AMERICAN    CITIZENSHIP 

r-1 

A  common  objection  has  been  raised  to  the  entry  of/ 
the  mass  of  Italian  immigration  to  this  country,  on  the 
score  that  it  has  been  too  largely  attracted  by  the  narrow      / 
consideration  of  money -making  and  not  with  any  purpose 
of  identifying  the  Italian  with  American  home  interests 
and  citizenship.     In  other  words,  the  mass  of  immigrants      - 
have  been  reputed  to  be  so-called  "  birds  of  passage," 
coming  here  for  the  sake  of  the  high  wages  of  the  Amer 
ican  labor  market,  and  scrimping  their  standard*  of  liv 
ing  in  order  to  accumulate  savings  sufficient  to  enable 
them  to  return  home  and  lift  themselves  above  the  level 
of  their  former  condition.  W 

There  is  an  offset,  not  always  recognized,  to  this  objec 
tion  in  the  fact  that  the  supply  of  labor  thus  obtained  is 
flexible,  adjusting  itself  readily  to  the  demands  of  the 
labor  market.  Hence  the  pressure  in  times  of  depression 
is  relieved  more  easily  than  in  cases  where  the  immigrants 
have  established  homes  which  they  can  hardly  leave  with 
out  costly  sacrifices,  if  at  all.  So  in  times  of  great  in 
dustrial  activity  labor  flows  in  like  the  advance  of  the 

249 


The  Italian  in  America 

tide,  receding  as  naturally  with  the  falling  off  of  the  de 
mand  in  periods  of  stagnation  or  industrial  collapse. 

So  far,  therefore,  as  the  influx  is  viewed  in  strict  rela 
tion  to  its  effects  on  the  labor  market,  it  may  be  con 
ceded  that  the  freedom  from  attachment  of  immigrant 
labor  is  of  material  value  in  its  elastic  response  to  the 
operation  of  the  laws  of  supply  and  demand.  The  relief 
afforded  to  the  American  workman  by  the  return  of  labor 
ers  across  the  ocean  in  times  of  stringency  is  greater  than 
could  have  been  effected  if  their  settlement  had  been  more 
stable. 

Nevertheless  I  have  no  desire  to  minimize  the  force  of 
the  objection  to  any  influence  that  tends  to  retard  assim 
ilation  and  impairs  the  identification  of  workingmen  here 
with  American  interests  and  citizenship.  Any  temporary 
relief  from  the  strain  of  competition  would  be  too  dearly 
secured  if  the  permanent  national  welfare  of  the  country 
was  sacrificed.  It  is  unquestionably  to  the  interest  of 
this  country  that  the  mass  of  its  working  population  shall 
be  moved  by  higher  considerations  than  the  bare  pecun 
iary  incentive  which  temporary  employment  affords. 

We  want  American  workingmen  generally  to  look  upon 
this  country  as  their  country,  to  realize  their  identifica 
tion  with  its  free  institutions,  its  aims  and  its  future,  and 
to  be  intimately  fused  in  association  as  fellow  American 
citizens,  and  not  to  be  held  aloof  as  sojourners  and  aliens. 

It  does  not  appear,  however,  that  any  novel  restrictions 

250 


Privileges,,  etc.,,  of  Italian- American  Citizenship 

are  necessary  to  effect  this  assimilation.  The  flow  and 
return  of  labor  will  doubtless  proceed  in  years  to  come  as 
in  the  past,  but  there  is  no  reason  to  apprehend  any  in 
crease  in  its  percentage  in  comparison  with  the  volume 
of  population.  The  actual  amount  of  this  floating  labor 
has  never  exceeded  one  per  cent,  of  our  population,  a  num 
ber  relatively  inconsiderable  in  view  of  the  vast  majority 
that  have  taken  and  will  continue  to  take  a  permanent 
residence  and  part  in  the  advance  of  our  republic. 

If  there  is  any  force  in  the  reproach  that  the  Italians  in 
particular  have  looked  upon  this  country  as  a  place  for 
money-making  rather  than  as  a  home,  the  edge  of  this  / 
reproach  is  becoming  more  blunt  year  after  year  with 
the  changing  views  of  the  immigrants  and  the  rising  ap 
preciation  of  the  opportunities  open  to  the  Italian  in 
America  and  the  reasons  why  he  should  prize  a  home  and 
citizenship  here.  The  percentage  of  Italian  women, 
mothers,  wives  and  daughters  coming  to  this  country  has 
been  steadily  increasing  with  the  rising  number  of  immi- 
grants  bringing  their  families  with  them  or  calling  them 
over  as  soon  as  the  men  have  secured  homes  to  receive 
them.  Thus  far  the  marriages  of  Italian  women  have 
been  almost  wholly  with  the  men  of  their  own  nationality 
or  descent,  but  a  large  percentage  of  the  men  have  inter 
married  with  other  nationalities,  and  this  percentage  is 
further  expanded  by  the  marriage  of  the  American-born 
sons  of  the  immigrants. 

251 


The  Italian  in  America 

• 

The  advancing  attachment  to  America  is  further 
/  marked  t  too,  by  the  greater  stability  of  settlement  and  ac 
quisition  of  property.  Even  the  city  tenement  quarters 
now  occupied  by  Italians  are  largely  passing  into  the 
hands  of  Italian  owners,  as  has  been  before  noted,  and 
the  progress  of  naturalization  is  extending  throughout  the 
country  with  the  advance  of  permanent  settlement.  It 
would  appear  to  be  no  longer  necessary  to  urge  upon  the 
Italian  residents  of  New  York  City,  for  example,  the  ad 
vantages  of  naturalization,  for  a  recent  examination  has 
shown  that  111,696  out  of  a  total  of  145,433  of  persons 
born  in  Italy  of  Italian  parentage  were  naturalized  in  1900. 
The  percentage  of  applicants  for  citizenship  is  naturally  not 
so  large  in  the  newer  and  more  infirm  settlements,  but 
there  nowhere  appears  any  reason  to  question  that  Italians 
as  a  body  seek  citizenship  as  zealously  as  the  immigrants  of 
any  other  nationality.  They  are  quick  to  see  that  it  places 
them  on  an  equal  footing  of  rights  and  privileges  with 
the  native  American  or  naturalized  associate  of  any  na 
tionality.  It  is  the  stamp  that  marks  their  entire  and 
loyal  identification  witn  tne  American  people  in  tnemain- 
tenance  and  advance  of  a  republic  in  which  all  citizens  are 
fellow  partners,  it  gl  V  uy  LhyJli  a  representative  voice  in  the 
framing  of  the  laws  that  govern  and  in  the  choice  of  their 
magistrates.  It  assures  to  them  the  respect  that  is  accorded 
inevitably  to  fellow  citizens  and  qualified  voters.  It  opens 
to  them  the  offices  in  the  gift  of  American  citizens  or  of 

252 


Privileges,  etc.,  of  Italian- American  Citizenship 

the  men  of  their  election,  by  ballot,  appointment,  or  civil 
service  examination.  It  gives  access  to  any  reservations 
of  employment  or  privilege  for  the  exclusive  benefit  of 
American  citizens. 

It  serves  to  break  down  irresistibly  the  lingering  bars 
of  aversion  or  distrust  or  indifference  that  separate  the 
alien  from  the  citizen.  They  see  in  it,  too,  a  bulwark  of 
protection  against  any  imposition  and  a  certificate  of 
power  to  compel  the  fair  recognition  that  rival  political 
parties  must  give  to  the  foreign-born  citizens  of  any  nation 
ality  in  this  country  when  the  determination  of  political 
control  may  be  dependent  upon  their  votes. 

In  short,  the  privileges  and  advantages  of  American 
citizenship  are  so  material  and  so  manifest  that  the  Ital 
ian-American  will  indeed  be  dull-witted  if  he  does  not 
seek  to  acquire  them  when  the  opportunity  is  offered.  It 
is,  however,  of  prime  importance  to  him  and  to  his  adopted 
country  that  he  should  appreciate  its  duties  no  less  fully 
than  its  opportunities.  No  Italian  has  the  right  legally 
or  morally  to  apply  for  American  citizenship  unless  he 
comprehends  to  the  letter  the  oath  that  he  takes  and  is 
absolutely  resolved  to  be  faithful  to  that  oath  without  a 
moment  of  wavering  or  repining.  The  American  repub* 
lie  asks  no  applicant  for  citizenship  to  forget  his  father 
land  or  any  of  its  inspiring  memories.  It  seeks  rather 
to  draw  the  bonds  more  closely  that  serve  to  unite  all 
nations  in  international  fellowship  and  untroubled  peace. 

253 


The  Italian  in  America 

But  the  Italian,  who  has  not  finally  made  up  his  mind, 
whatever  natural  regrets  he  may  cherish,  to  sever  his 
former  allegiance  and  transfer  to  his  adopted  country 
the  full  measure  of  loyalty  and  duty  that  was  due  to  his 
native  land,  is  not  qualified  for  admission  to  American 
citizenship.  If  home  still  means  to  him  his  dear  birth 
place  and  he  still  hopes  to  return  not  simply  as  a  welcome 
visitor,  but  as  an  adventurer  who  has  filled  his  pockets 
with  American  gold,  he  is  not  entitled  to  the  citizenship 
which  he  has  sought  only  as  a  means  to  this  end. 

If,  on  the  contrary,  with  all  due  reverence  for  his  orig 
inal  fealty,  he  surrenders  it  with  a  true  heart  to  take  up 
the  new  loyalty  and  obligations  imposed  by  his  shift  of 
citizenship,  he  will  be  truly  welcome  to  American  fellow 
ship. 

Henceforth  the  Stars  and  Stripes  will  be  his  flag  as 
surely  as  it  is  the  flag  of  any  native-born  citizen,  and  he 
must  follow  it,  whether  he  be  rich  or  poor,  to  the  death, 
if  need  be,  when  he  is  called  upon  by  his  adopted  country 
to  prove  his  fidelity. 

Before  he  applies  for  citizenship,  the  Italian  who  comes 
to  this  country  must  take  to  heart,  too,  that  American 
citizenship  is  a  trust  that  he  must  hold  sacred — that  its 
duties  and  responsibilities  are  confided  to  his  honor — that 
he  must  shrink  from  any  proposal  to  prostitute  it  as  he 
would  from  a  known  lure  of  the  devil  in  any  guise.  There 
will  be  traps  set  for  his  feet  as  soon  as  he  has  won  the 

254 


Privileges,  etc.,  of  Italian- American  Citizenship 

right  to  vote  and  before — offers  to  pay  the  fee  for  citizen 
ship  papers  and  other  inducements  for  the  promise  of  his 
support  at  the  polls — bids  for  his  vote  on  Election  Day  by 
unscrupulous  partisans — or  the  more  covert  and  dangerous 
appeals  to  his  prejudice  or  personal  favoritism.  The  temp 
tations  thus  set  in  the  way  of  a  poor  man  are  too  often 
triumphant.  They  should  brand  with  shame  the  face  of 
the  tempters,  but  the  tempted  cannot  take  the  stain  off 
their  honor  by  any  excuse  for  yielding  to  shameful  induce 
ments.  All  who  sell  their  votes  under  any  pretence  vio 
late  their  oath  of  citizenship,  break  the  law  against  such 
venality,  make  themselves  liable  to  arrest,  trial,  convic 
tion  and  imprisonment,  and  disgrace  nob  only  themselves 
but  the  nationality  which  is  obliged  to  own  them  as  fellow 
countrymen.  There  has  unfortunately  been  ground  for 
the  charge  that  some  Italian- Americans  have  taken  their 
oath  of  allegiance  too  lightly  and  have  been  willing  to 
sell  or  barter  their  votes  as  if  they  were  trinkets  on  which 
they  set  little  value.  It  should  be  needless  to  point  out 
that  this  reckless  and  shameful  abuse  of  citizenship  must 
be  rooted  out  by  every  means  at  the  command  of  good 
citizenship  as  a  foul  blot  on  the  face  of  our  republic  and  a 
cancer  that  may  eat  to  the  heart  of  the  integrity  of  re 
publican  institutions. 

It  is  the  duty  of  all  Italian- American  citizens  and  ap 
plicants  for  citizenship  to  inform  themselves  in  every  feas 
ible  way  in  regard  to  the  questions  of  public  concern 

255 


The  Italian  in  America 

whose  settlement  may  be  affected  by  their  influence  or 
votes. 

If  they  cannot  read  or  understand  English  readily,  they 
may  study  the  presentation  of  these  questions  in  Italian- 
American  journals,  and  may  call  on  their  own  best  in 
formed  countrymen  in  America  or  others  upon  whose 
honesty  and  fairness  they  can  rely  for  the  needed  explan 
ation.  Every  meeting  for  such  discussion  is  helpful  if 
sincerely  conducted.  No  one  should  be  content  with 
biased  or  one-sided  presentations.  Let  both  sides  have 
an  impartial  hearing  and  let  the  statements  and  evidence 
submitted  by  both  be  carefully  and  fairly  considered.  Let 
the  decision  in  every  case  be  in  accordance  with  every 
man's  conviction  of  duty  to  himself,  his  family  and  his 
country.  Then,  even  if  mistaken,  the  determination  will 
be  right  and  one  of  which  no  citizen  need  be  ashamed. 
—It  is  the  duty  further  of  every  applicant  for  citizenship 
to  exalt  the  standard  of  American  citizenship  in  his  per 
sonal  conduct  and  by  every  influence  at  his  command. 
He  should  be  sober,  truthful,  honest,  law-abiding,  indus 
trious,  thrifty  and  ambitious  for  the  advance  of  himself 
and  his  children.  He  should  prize  the  free  thought,  free 
press,  free  school  and  free  government  of  America  as  a 
treasure  beyond  price.  He  should  learn  to  rely  with  con 
fidence  on  American  laws,  juries  and  judges  for  justice  and 
indemnity  for  wrongs  and  not  to  seek  redress  by  lawless 
violence.  He  should  never  forget  that  prejudice  can  most 

— \  256 


Privileges,  etc.,  of  Italian-American  Citizenship 

surely  be  confounded  by  conduct  that  may  defy  the  barbs 
of  slander,  and  that  any  falling  off  from  this  standard  of 
duty  will  lower  not  only  himself  but  the  reputation  of  his 
fellow  countrymen  in  the  esteem  of  America.  Let  it  be 
his  pride  to  keep  ever  at  heart  "  I  was  an  Italian.  I  am 
an  American.  1  am  not  conscious  that  I  have  done  any 
thing  to  sully  the  honor  of  either  name." 

JOHN  J.  D.  TBENOK. 


267 


INDEX 


Agriculture,  Italian,  30-32,  41-48; 
233,  234;  Italian  in  America, 
88-92,  112-153,  170-174. 

Aiken,  Hon.  Wyatt,  advocates 
better  distribution  of  immigra 
tion,  156,  157. 

Alabama,  Italians  in,  6;  agricul 
tural  development  and  settle 
ment  of,  by  Italians,  132-134. 

Alderson,  Indian  Territory,  Ital 
ian  miners  in,  108. 

"American  Journal  of  Sociology," 
on  comparative  criminality, 
204. 

"  Americans  in  Process,"  socio 
logical  publication,  73,  202. 

Archibald,  Indian  Territory,  Ital 
ian  miners  in,  108. 

Arizona,  Italians  in,  6. 

Arkansas,  Italians  in,  6;  on  plan 
tations,  148-153. 

"Associated  Charities"  of  Bos 
ton,  23d  Annual  Report  of,  195- 
197. 

Asti,  Cal.,  prosperous  Italian  col 
ony  of,  135-142. 

B 

Baltimore,  Italians  in,  9. 
Belgium,  population  of  in  propor 
tion  to  area,  155. 


Boston,  Italians  in,  8;  improve 
ment  of  Italian  lodgings,  73; 
report  of  "Associated  Char 
ities"  of,  195-197;  condition  of 
Italians  in,  201-203;  compar 
ative  temperance  of  Italians  in, 
214. 

Bridgeport,  Conn.,  Italian  settle 
ment  in,  84,  85. 

Brindisi,  Rocco,  M.D.,  on  compar 
ative  diseases  and  mortality, 
199-201,  203. 

Bryan,  Texas,  Italian  settlement 
in,  89,  90. 

Buck,  C.  L.,  reports  on  "Italian 
Labor  in  the  South,"  172-174. 

Buckingham,  City  Clerk  of 
Bridgeport,  reports  on  Italian 
citizenship,  84. 


California,  Italian-born  popula 
tion  of,  6;  cities  of,  condition 
of  Italians  in,  90-92;  attracts 
immigration,  115;  Italian  agri 
cultural  settlements  in,  135- 
144. 

"  California  Fruit  Growers  Asso 
ciation,"  91. 

Canada,  Dominion  of,  promotes 
immigration,  163-166,  188;  as 
similation  of  immigrants  from, 
228,  229. 


Index 


Canastota,  N.  Y.,  Italian  settle 
ment  at,  125-127. 

Carnegie,  Andrew,  estimate  of 
Italian  immigrant,  174,  175. 

Casale  de,  Chevalier  Secchi,  foun 
der  of  Italian  colonies  in  Amer 
ica,  130-132. 

Chattanooga  "  Times,"  on  de 
mand  for  immigration  for 
development  of  the  South, 
184. 

Chattanooga  Immigration  Bur 
eau,  184. 

Chicago,  Italians  in,  8. 

Claghorn,  Kate  Holladay,  Assist 
ant  Registrar,  New  York  Tene 
ment-House  Department,  72; 
on  education  of  Italian  chil 
dren,  244,  245. 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  Italians  in,  8. 

Colgate,  Indian  Territory,  Italian 
miners  in,  108. 

Colorado,  Italians  in,  6. 

Columbus  Hospital,  81. 

Connecticut,  Italians  in,  5. 

Corbi'n,  Austin,  founder  of  Ital 
ian  colony,  147;  plantation  of, 
148-151. 

Creelman,  James,  reports  Mayor 
McClellan's  view  of  Italians, 
248. 

Crime,  comparative  showing  of 
native  and  foreign-born  popu 
lation,  203-220;  comparative 
percentage,  Italian,  205,  209- 
220. 

Crittenden,  C.  P.,  employer  of 
Italian  labor,  148. 


Daphne,  Alabama,  Italian  settle 
ment  in,  132-134. 

Defoe,  Daniel,  on  the  "  True-Born 
Englishman,"  231,  232. 

Delano,  Hon.  Milton,  report  of, 
126,  127. 

Delaware,  Italians  in,  5. 

De  Vecchi,  Dr.,  distinguished  Ital 
ian  surgeon  and  member  of 
Italian-Swiss  Association,  141, 
142. 

Dinwiddie,  Emily  Wayland,  re 
ports  on  congestion  of  tene 
ment  lodgings  in  Philadelphia, 
72,  73. 

Disease,  statistics  of,  regarding 
immigrants  from  Italy,  198- 
203. 

District  of  Columbia,  Italians  in, 
5. 


Education  and  Assimilation,  221- 
248. 

"  Educational  Test "  of  Immigra 
tion,  16,  17,  182,  183. 

Eisenmenger,  Mayor  of  Schenec- 
tady,  reports  on  Italian  labor 
and  character,  85. 

Ellis  Island,  applications  to  offi 
cials  at,  185. 

Emigration,  flow  of  from  Italy, 
1-18;  distribution  of  in  the 
United  States,  4-9;  causes  and 
regulation  of  Italian,  39-60. 
(See  Immigration.) 


Index 


England  and  Wales,  proportion 
of  immigrants  from,  in  char 
itable  institutions  of  New  York 
City,  194,  195;  comparative 
temperance  of  immigrants 
from,  212. 

F 

Fassino  Brothers,  progressive 
Italian  operators,  108. 

Fischer,  P.  D.,  on  Italian  agricul 
turists,  234. 

Fleischer,  Eabbi,  on  racial  diver 
gence,  230. 

Florida,  Italians  in,  5. 

Fobes,  Alan  C.,  Mayor  of  Syra 
cuse,  reports  on  Italian  labor 
and  character,  85. 

Fontana,  Signer  Marco,  J.,  super 
intendent  California  Fruit- 
Growers'  Association,  91. 

"  Four  States  Immigration 
League,"  183,  184. 

Franklin,  Lawrence,  on  Italian 
teachableness,  240,  241. 

French  Canada,  percentage  of  un 
skilled  labor  furnished  by,  65; 
assimilation  of  immigrants 
from,  228,  229. 


Georgia,  Italians  in,  5. 

Germany,  proportion  of  immi 
grants  from  charitable  institu 
tions  of  New  York  City,  194- 
195;  comparative  temperance 
of  immigrants  from,  212. 

Gladstone,  William  E.,  on  Italian 
capacity,  223. 


Gordon,     F.     B.,     President     of 

Georgia  Industrial  Association, 

address  of,  116,  117. 
Green,  Dr.  Thomas,  "  Key  to  the 

Twentieth  Century,"  229-230. 
Greenville,   Miss.,    Italian    farms 

and  plantations  at,  146. 

H 

Hale,  Edward  Everett,  discusses 
immigration,  163;  appeals  for 
distribution,  181-182. 

Harris,  U.  S.  Commercial  Agent, 
report  of,  36. 

Hart,  Hastings  H.,  on  compara 
tive  criminality  of  foreign  and 
native- barn  population,  204, 
205. 

Hartford,  Conn.,  Italians  in,  9. 

Hartshorne,  Indian  Territory, 
Italian  miners  in,  108. 

Heingartner,  Alexander,  U.  S. 
Consul  at  Catania,  report  of, 
47. 

Hoboken,  N.  J.,  Italians  in,  9. 

Holyoke,  George  Jacob,  remarks 
on  apathy  of  American  govern 
ment  touching  direction  of  im 
migration,  181. 

Howells,  William  Dean,  on  Ital 
ian  democracy,  222,  223;  on 
"Ragged  Schools"  of  Naples, 
237-240. 

Hungary,  percentage  of  unskilled 
labor  furnished  by,  65. 


Idaho,  Italians  in,  6. 


261 


Index 


Illinois,  Bureau  of  Labor  Statis 
tics,  report  of,  100-102. 

Illinois,  Italians  in,  5. 

"  Immigrant  Fund,"  180. 

Immigration,  of  Italians  to 
United  States,  1-18;  to  United 
States  from  Italy  discussed  by 
Dr.  J.  H.  Senner,  10;  report  of 
U.  S.  Commissioner  General  of 
Immigration  for  year  ending 
June  30,  1903,  12;  report  of 
Commissioner  for  the  State  of 
New  York,  12;  discussed  by 
Inspector  of  Royal  Emigration 
Department  of  Italy,  13,  14; 
restriction  of  considered  in  Re 
port  of  Industrial  Commission, 
14;  comparative  ratio  of  in 
crease  of,  15;  "educational 
test"  for,  16,  17;  objections  to, 
18;  causes  and  regulation  of, 
from  Italy,  36-60;  into  the  coal 
mining  fields,  99-113;  into  the 
agricultural  districts,  114-154; 
rising  demand  for  Italian,  155- 
175;  need  of  better  distribution 
of,  176-189. 

Immigration  Restriction  League, 
advocates  "  educational  test," 
16;  reports  on  criminal  record 
of  Italians,  212. 

Independence,  La.,  Italian  settle 
ment  and  strawberry  culture 
in,  127-129. 

Indiana,  Italians  in,  5. 

Indian  Territory,  Italians  in,  6, 
88,  107-110. 

Industrial    Commission,    on    Im 


migration,  calculates  percent 
ages  of  immigration  from  Italy 
by  sexes,  11,  12;  considers  re 
striction,  14;  records  percent 
age  of  males  employed  in  prin 
cipal  industries,  64,  65;  reports 
advance  of  Italians  as  makers 
of  clothing,  95,  96;  gives  per 
centages  of  pauperism  for  na 
tionalities,  197;  presents  com 
parative  criminality,  205. 

Iowa,  Italians  in,  6. 

Ireland,  percentage  of  unskilled 
labor  furnished  by,  65;  de 
pressed  condition  of  during 
famine,  235,  236. 

Irish,  percentage  residing  in 
American  cities,  8;  association 
with  Italians,  69,  70;  in  mining 
fields,  106,  107;  percentage  of 
pauperism,  193,  197;  in  charit 
able  institutions  of  the  United 
States,  198;  intemperance  of, 
212;  in  Massachusetts,  229;  re 
lation  to  English,  230. 

Italian,  influx  of  immigration  to 
the  United  States,  1-4;  popula 
tion  in  the  United  States,  5,  9; 
population  in  American  cities, 
8,  9;  population  in  the  State  of 
New  York,  10;  population  in 
Greater  New  York,  10;  immi 
gration  with  distinction  of 
sex,  10-12;  immigration  with 
distinction  of  ages,  12:  immi 
gration,  per  capita  value  of, 
12,  13;  immigration,  desirabil 
ity  of,  12-17;  immigration,  ob- 


262 


Index 


jections  to,  17,  18;  inheritance 
and  progress,  20-38;  emigra 
tion,  causes  and  regulation  of, 
39-60;  settlement  in  American 
cities,  61-92;  skilled  and  un 
skilled  labor,  61-66;  occupa 
tions  in  cities,  65-68;  charac 
teristics,  68;  relations  with 
Irish,  69,  70;  congestion  in 
cities,  70-73;  tenancy  and 
ownership  increase  property 
values,  73-78;  savings  and  in 
vestments  in  New  York  City, 
78,  79;  business  enterprises  and 
charitable  foundations,  80,  81; 
devotion  to  the  fine  arts,  81; 
comparative  advance  in  smaller 
cities,  81-92;  in  competition 
and  association,  93-98;  in  the 
mining  fields,  99-113;  on  farm 
and  plantation,  116-153;  pau 
perism,  disease  and  crime,  190- 
220;  progressive  education  and 
assimilation,  221-248;  advance 
to  American  citizenship,  249- 
257. 

"  Italian  Benevolent  Institute," 
81. 

Italy,  emigration  from,  to  the 
United  States,  1-18;  inherit 
ance  and  progress  of,  20-38; 
population  of,  40;  industrial 
condition  of,  40-48. 


Jersey  City,  N.  J.,  Italians  in,  8. 

Jew,    the,    in    competition    with 

Italian  clothing  worker,  95;  in 


charitable  institutions  in  the 
United  States,  198;  establish 
ment  of,  in  United  States,  227; 
not  related  to  English,  230; 
in  public  schools,  240. 

K 

Kansas  City,  Mo.,  Italians  in,  9. 

Kansas,  Italians  in,  6. 

Keller,  Hon.  John  W.,  reports  on 

pauperism  in  New  York  City, 

193-195. 

Kentucky,  Italians  in,  6. 
Krebs,  Indian  Territory,  Italian 

miners  in,  108-110. 


La  Colonia  Alessandrina  di 
Memphis,  124. 

La  Societa  di  Muttuo  Soccorso 
dei  Giardinieri  Italiani  di 
Memphis,  124. 

La  Tribuna  Italiana,  118. 

Lamberth,  Ala.,  Italian  settle 
ment  in,  132,  134. 

Lancaster,  L.  H.,  on  education  of 
Italian  children,  243,  244. 

Landis,  Charles,  promotes  Italian 

colonization,  131. 

Landisville,  N.  J.,  Italian  settle 
ment  in,  131. 

Langley,  Lee  J.,  reports  on  Ital 
ians  in  the  South,  174. 

Lithuanians,  in  the  mining  fields, 
103-106. 

Lloyd,  Henry  Demarest,  reports 
on  New  Zealand's  distribution 
of  labor,  177-179. 


263 


Index 


Louisiana,  Italians  in,  6;  condi 
tion  and  character  of,  87,  88; 
Italians  in  agricultural  dis 
tricts  of,  127-129,  144,  145,  152, 
172-174,  243,  244. 
M 

Mabie,  Hamilton,  notes  influence 
of  Italy  on  Europe,  26. 

Madera,  Cal.,  Italian  colony  at, 
142,  143. 

Maine,  Italians  in,  5. 

Maryland,  Italians  in,  5. 

Massachusetts,  Italians  in,  5,  8, 
73,  195-197;  condition  of  Ital 
ians  in,  201,  203;  criminal 
record  of  Italians  in,  212,  213. 

Mastro-Valerio,  Alessandro,  ed 
itor  and  founder  of  colonies, 
118,  119,  131-134. 

McAdoo,  Police  Commissioner,  on 
organization  of  "Italian  De 
partment,"  219,  220. 

McAlister,  Indian  Territory,  Ital 
ian  miners  in,  108,  109. 

McClellan,  Geo.  B.,  view  of  Ital 
ian  immigration,  248. 

McConnell,  W.  W.  P.,  Dairy  and 
Food  Commissioner  for  Minne 
sota,  report  of,  167,  168. 

McKeesport  "News,"  "The  Im 
migration  Problem,"  227-229. 

Memphis,  Tenn.,  Italian  suburban 
settlement,  124;  application  for 
labor  from,  185,  186. 

Michigan,  Italians  in,  5. 

Miners,  Italian  immigrant,  99, 
100;  number  Italian,  in  anthra 
cite  region,  103;  Lithuanian, 


Slovak  and  Polish,  103;  perils 
of,  104;  jealousy  and  dissen 
sions  of,  105;  improved  condi 
tion  of,  106;  number  of  Ital 
ian,  in  Indian  Territory,  108; 
satisfactory  condition  of,  in 
Indian  Territory  and  Texas, 
108-112;  in  Colorado,  113. 

Minnesota,  Italians  in,  6;  need 
of  further  development,  166- 
168. 

Mississippi,  Italians  in,  6;  on 
sugar  cane  plantations,  144- 
154;  Italian  labor  in,  174. 

Missouri,  Italians  in,  6. 

Mitchell,  John,  President  United 
Mine  Workers,  opposes  immi 
gration,  159-160. 

Montana,  Italians  in,  6. 

Mulvihill,  Mayor  of  Bridgeport, 
reports  on  Italian  character, 
84. 

N 

Naturalization,  of  Italians,  224, 
252,  253. 

Nebraska,  Italians  in,  6. 

Nevada,  Italians  in,  6. 

Newark,  N.  J.,  Italians  in,  8. 

New  Hampshire,  Italians  in,  5, 

New  Haven,  Conn.  Italians  in,  8, 
121-123. 

New  Jersey,  Italians  in,  5. 

New  Mexico,  Italians  in,  6. 

New  Orleans,  Italian  settlement 
in,  87,  88. 

New  York  City,  Italian- born  pop 
ulation  of,  8;  Italian  settle 
ment  in,  69-72,  74-81,  120. 


264 


Index 


New  York  "Evening  Post,"  dis 
cusses  Italian  settlement  in 
American  cities,  114,  115. 

New  York  State,  Italians  in,  5; 
condition  of,  85-87;  Italian 
market-gardening  in,  124-127. 

New  York  State  Board  of  Char 
ities,  report  on  pauperism,  193- 
195. 

New  York  "  Sun  "  on  emigration 
to  Canada,  165,  166;  on  emigra 
tion  to  the  South,  168;  on  Ital 
ian  book  readers,  246-248. 

New  York  "  Times,"  reports 
statement  of  John  Mitchell, 
159,'  160. 

New  York  "  World "  reports 
Mayor  Geo.  B.  McClellan,  248. 

New  Zealand,  Department  of 
Labor,  177-179. 

"  North  American  Review,"  art 
icle  on  "  Immigration  from 
Italy,"  11. 

North  Carolina,  Italians  in,  5. 

North  Dakota,  Italians  in,  6. 


Ohio,  Italians  in,  5. 
Oklahoma,  Italians  in,  6. 
Olino,  Dr.  G.,  promoter  of  viti 
culture,  138. 
Oregon,  Italians  in,  6. 


Pantaleone,  Prof.,  on  taxation  in 

Italy,  41,  42. 
Paterson,  Italians  in,  8, 
Pauperism,  in  Italy,  191;  in  New 


York  City,  192-195;  in  Boston, 
195-197;  general  distribution 
of,  by  nationalities  in  the 
United  States,  197,  198. 

Percy,  Leroy,  planter,  148;  re 
ports  on  Italian  labor,  150,  151. 

Petrosini,  Police  Sergeant,  heads 
"Italian  Department,"  219. 

Philadelphia,  Italians  in,  8. 

"Philadelphia  Record"  discusses 
immigration,  158,  159. 

Philips,  Indian  Territory,  Italian 
miners  in,  108. 

Piedmont,  miners  from,  108-110. 

Pittsburg,  Italians  in,  8. 

Pole,  the,  in  competition  with 
Italian  clothing-maker,  96;  in 
the  mining  fields,  103. 

Population,  Italian,  born  in  the 
United  States,  5;  percentage  of 
Italian  born  in  American  cities, 
8,  9;  computed  total  of  Italian 
descent  in  the  United  States, 
9;  percentage  of  Russian  born 
in  American  cities,  10;  percent 
age  of  Irish  born  in  American 
cities,  10;  total  of  Italian  des 
cent  in  New  York  State,  10;  in 
Greater  New  York,  10. 

Preston,  W.  T.  R.,  Canadian 
Commissioner,  reports  on  emi 
gration  to  Canada,  165,  166. 

Providence,  R.  I.,  Italians  in,  8. 


Raleigh  (N.  C.)  "Observer,"  on 
"  Italian  Immigration  to  the 
South,"  170-174. 


265 


Index 


Keich,  Emil,  discusses  "  The  Fut 
ure  of  the  Latin  Races."  37,  38. 

Khode  Island,  Italians  in,  5. 

Riis,  Jacob,  sets  forth  evils  of 
congestion,  72;  on  beggary  in 
New  York  City,  192,  193;  on 
eradication  of  the  slum,  206- 
209;  teachableness  of  Italian 
children,  241;  assimilation  and 
progress  of  Italian  immigrants, 
242,  243. 

Rochester,  N.  Y.,  Italians  in,  9. 

Rochester  (N.  Y.)  "Times,"  on 
Italian  and  Russian  competi 
tion,  244. 

Rossi,  Adolpho,  Inspector  of 
Royal  Emigration  Department 
of  Italy,  discusses  character  of 
Italian  emigration  to  America, 
13,  14;  notes  increase  of  wages 
in  Italy,  45,  46;  presents  main 
provisions  of  Italian  official 
regulation  of  emigration,  56- 
60;  reports  on  Italian  settle 
ment  in  New  Orleans,  87,  88; 
in  Bryan  and  other  towns  in 
Texas,  89,  90;  in  Salt  Lake 
City,  90;  in  San  Francisco  and 
other  cities  in  California,  90- 
92;  reports  on  Italian  miners 
in  Indian  Territory,  Texas  and 
Colorado,  107-113;  inspects 
settlements  in  Tennessee,  124; 
in  Louisiana,  128,  129;  in  Cali 
fornia,  140-143;  in  Texas,  145, 
146;  in  Mississippi,  146,  147;  in 
Arkansas,  148,  149. 

Rossi,    Pietro    C.,    distinguished 


pharmacist,    and    member    of 

Italian-Swiss  Association,  141. 
Royal  Emigration  Department  of 

Italy,  organization  of,  54,  55; 

policy  of,  56-60. 
Russia,  percentage  of  population 

Russian-born       in       American 

cities,  8, 
Russian-Poland,     percentage     of 

population  in  American  cities, 

8. 


Sacred  Heart,  missionary  sisters 
of,  80,  88. 

San  Francisco,  Italian-born  pop 
ulation  of,  8;  Italian  settle 
ment  in,  91,  92. 

San  Jose,  California,  Italian  set 
tlement  in,  92. 

"  Saturday  Review,"  London,  on 
independence  of  United  States, 
189. 

St.  Joseph  Protective  Associa 
tion,  219. 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  Italians  in,  9. 

Sbarboro,  Cav.  A.,  a  founder  of 
Asti,  Cal.,  141. 

Schenectady,  N.  Y.,  Italian  set 
tlement  in,  85. 

Scranton,  Pa.,  Italians  in,  9. 

Senner,  Dr.  J.  H.,  discusses  "  Im 
migration  from  Italy,"  10,  11; 
on  assimilation  of  Italian  im 
migrants,  241,  242. 

Sex,  division  of,  in  Italian  immi 
gration  to  the  United  States, 
10-12. 


266 


Index 


Sicilians,  in  New  Orleans,  87,  88; 
at  Bryan,  Texas,  89,  90;  at 
Independence, La.,  127-129;  pro 
gressive  children  of,  243-244. 

Slavs,  in  mining  fields,  103-106. 

Slovaks,  in  coal  mining  region, 
103. 

"  Social  Economist,  the,"  extracts 
on  immigration,  163,  183. 

"  South  Atlantic  Quarterly," 
"The  Italian  Cotton  Grower," 
151-153. 

South  Carolina,  Italians  in,  o; 
law  of,  restricting  immigration, 
117. 

"  Southern  Farm  Magazine,"  re 
port  on  Italian  labor,  150-151. 

South  McAlister,  Indian  Terri 
tory,  Italian  miners  in,  108. 

Speranza,  Gino  C.,  presents  in 
dustrial  and  financial  progress 
of  Italy,  45;  computes  Italian 
savings  and  investments  in 
New  York  City,  78,  79. 

Stella,  Antonio,  M.D.,  on  preval 
ence  of  consumption,  202,  203. 

Stilwell,  Giles  H.,  President  of 
Syracuse  Board  of  Education, 
reports  on  immigrants  in  Syra 
cuse,  86. 

Stone,  Alfred  Holt,  discusses 
"The  Italian  Cotton  Grower," 
151-153. 

Syracuse,  Italian  settlement  in, 
9,  86. 

T 

Tennessee,  Italians  in,  6;  condi 
tion  of,  124. 


Texas,  Italians  in,  6,  88-90,  110- 

113. 
Texas  and  Pacific  Coal  Company, 

111-113. 
Thurber,    Texas,    Italian    miners 

in,  110-113. 
Tosti,    Dr.    G.,    discusses    "The 

Financial  and  Industrial  Out 
look  of  Italy,"  47. 
Tregear,   Edward,   head   of   New 

Zealand  Department  of  Labor, 

177-179. 
Trenton,  N.  J.,  Italians  in,  9. 

U 

"  United  Italy,"  inheritance  and 
progress  of,  20-38. 

United  Mine  Workers  of  Amer 
ica,  intervention  of,  in  Texas, 
112. 

U.  S.  Commissioner-General  of 
Immigration,  report  of  for  year 
ending  June  30,  1903,  12;  gives 
comparative  ratio  of  increase 
of  immigration,  15;  report  on 
pauperism,  192;  statistics  of 
aliens  in  charitable  institutions 
of  United  States,  197,  198. 

U.  S.  Industrial  Commission. 
(See  Industrial  Commission). 

Utah,  Italians  in,  6. 

Utica,  Italian  settlement  in,  9, 
86,  87. 

V 

Vermont,  Italians  in,  5. 
Villari,  Luigi,   discusses   emigra 
tion  from  Italy,  39,  40;  on  tax- 


267 


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